One Ecosystem :
Research Article
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Corresponding author: Daniel T. I. Bayley (daniel.bayley.14@ucl.ac.uk)
Academic editor: Ina M. Sieber
Received: 05 Jan 2021 | Accepted: 01 Mar 2021 | Published: 14 May 2021
© 2021 Daniel Bayley, Paul Brickle, Paul Brewin, Neil Golding, Tara Pelembe
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Bayley DTI, Brickle P, Brewin PE, Golding N, Pelembe T (2021) Valuation of kelp forest ecosystem services in the Falkland Islands: A case study integrating blue carbon sequestration potential. One Ecosystem 6: e62811. https://doi.org/10.3897/oneeco.6.e62811
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Kelp forests provide many important ecosystem services to people, including mitigating storm damage, cycling nutrients, and providing commercially-harvestable resources. However, kelp forests’ ability to sequester carbon dioxide, and therefore help regulate the climate, has until recently, been overlooked in assessments of the beneficial services they provide. In this study we incorporate updated knowledge on the potential of kelp to sequester ‘blue carbon’, and use the extensive kelp forests of the Falkland Islands as a case study to assess the value of kelp forest to society through multiple associated ecosystem services. Our analysis shows kelp forests provide a highly valuable range of direct and indirect services, which if managed correctly, will continue to benefit people, both now and in the future. The total estimated value of the Falkland Islands’ kelp system is currently equivalent to ~ £2.69 billion per year (or £3.24 million km-2 year-1). However, the true value of the kelp forest surrounding the Falkland Islands is likely to be higher still, given that our estimate does not account for elements such as associated scientific research, tourism, and cultural services, due to the necessary data currently being unavailable. Similarly, the full value of these highly biodiverse ecosystems in supplying habitat and food to a large range of associated species is crucial, yet extremely difficult to fully quantify. This study illustrates the importance of maintaining kelp ecosystems in a healthy state to ensure they continue to supply valuable ecological processes, functional roles, and ecosystem services, including their overlooked role as significant long-term carbon sinks.
ecosystem services, kelp, macroalgae, natural capital, carbon sequestration, Falkland Islands
Ecosystem services are "the benefits people obtain from ecosystems” and which improve people's overall well-being (
Kelp forests are mixed assemblages of brown algae from the Order Laminariales, found globally within rocky coastal marine systems in temperate, sub-tropical and sub-polar regions (
Globally, coastal and marine vegetation captures and sequesters significant amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide through natural processes, helping to regulate climate. Kelp forests were previously thought to contribute little to carbon sequestration as this habitat is typically located on rocky substrate, as opposed to the soft sediment surrounding habitats such as seagrass and mangrove forest that is necessary for long-term carbon storage (
Kelp additionally provides a range of other important services. These can originate either directly from the kelp itself or indirectly from the diverse range of species which use the kelp forest for food and habitat, or those which are bio-physically influenced by its presence (
This work aims to quantify and estimate the total value of the ecosystem services associated with the Falkland Islands’ kelp forests, including their value in sequestering carbon dioxide, known as 'blue carbon'. We use a combination of high-resolution satellite-derived kelp habitat extent predictions along with a large dataset of in-situ density measurements to examine the ecosystem service value of these kelp forests. This work builds on previous analyses in this region, showing extensive kelp assemblages (
We used a range of economic valuation techniques to assess the combined ecosystem service value of a mixed Macrocystis pyrifera and Lessonia spp. kelp forest. We include: (1) the regulating service value of kelp as a climate buffer (through carbon storage and sequestration); 2) the regulating service value of nutrient cycling; 3) the provisioning service of associated commercial fisheries; and 4) the theoretical provisioning service of kelp as a raw material via extraction of alginate/alginic acid. A summary of datasets used for each valuation method (and their limitations) is available in Suppl. material
The Falkland Islands, situated in the temperate and sub-polar South Atlantic, comprises two main islands (East and West Falkland) and 776 smaller surrounding islands (Fig.
The Falkland Islands is one of the UK’s 14 overseas territories (UKOTs). As such, if they choose to have the UK’s ratification of the Paris Agreement extended to them along with other UKOTs, they will be included in the UK’s future accounting and reporting on emissions under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (
The surrounding marine area covers 463,897 km2 within the Exclusive Economic Zone, and includes both shallow and deep sea regions. The waters and coasts are home to a diverse mix of species (
Current kelp distribution was mapped using image classifications based on Sentinel 1 (band 1) and Sentinel 2 (all 10 m bands) satellite imagery; Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data; and Landsat 8, (band 1) inputs within Google Earth Engine (
All satellite imagery was clipped to the Falkland Island area of interest and a cosine terrain correction was applied to the Sentinel 2 imagery to balance the effects of shadowing and bright surfaces. Cloud masking was also applied. Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), Normalised Difference Water Index (NDWI), and Geary’s C on Landsat 8’s band 1 (coastal aerosol) were calculated as further metrics for input into the model classifier. Ground-truthing points from in-water survey were additionally included for training and validation of habitat classifiers for Random Forest analysis. For further details on the broad-scale mapping methodology, see
Accurate satellite data for the distribution of Lessonia spp. species was not possible with this method, due to the high amount of data processing artefacts created and concealment within the larger giant kelp-dominated forest. We therefore assumed the same extent for all kelp species. Lessonia spp. can, however, be found outside the range of M. pyrifera, and M. pyrifera can live at depths of ~ 50 m+ and be non-surface touching (
Kelp density
Kelp density was calculated based on field survey data collected from across the Falkland Islands between 2008 and 2016 (Shallow Marine Surveys Group, unpublished data), with a total of 315 surveys conducted between 2008 and 2016 (Fig.
Biomass and carbon content estimation
Macrocystis pyrifera thalli mean wet weight (excluding bare stipes) was calculated using values from
Kelp sequestration rate
The average net primary productivity (NPP) of Macrocystis pyrifera kelp forest (including understorey species), is estimated to be in the range 670 – 1300 g C m-2 yr-1, with a mean productivity value of 985 g C m-2 yr-1 (Reed and Bzezinski 2009). Following a global analysis by
Diagrams of: A) a typical giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) thallus, illustrating the major components of the adult sporophyte plant life-stage; B) a typical giant kelp forest community structure, including kelp understorey and associated biodiversity; and C) sequestration routes of kelp forest net primary productivity (NPP) biomass to the deep sea through dissolved and particulate organic carbon (DOC/POC) pathways – based on
Carbon value
The United Kingdom has now shifted from the direct use of the Social Cost of Carbon (SCC), which estimates lifetime damage costs of carbon to society, to a ‘target-consistent’ approach, based on emissions targets for future climate scenarios and the cost of abatement (
CO2e cost values were applied to current estimates of carbon content and sequestration potential within the Falkland Islands (based on current density and distribution and assuming no future decline in kelp extent or density). It is important to note that the current value of the carbon already sequestered to the deep sea was not estimated due to lack of data, but is likely substantial.
Our valuation is based on the replacement cost needed to recreate the function of coastal nitrogen and phosphorus regulation and recycling back to the land, if this natural service did not exist (
We calculated average total fish catch (tonnes) over three years (2015-2017) for all 15 commercially-exploited fisheries within the Falkland Islands, based on government data (
We use the market value of each species (£GBP/metric tonne) to estimate the total value of the kelp system in terms of exploited kelp-associated fish harvest (
We use a non-use valuation technique, based on a historic alginate extraction pilot project in the Falkland Islands. A test plant was established in the 1970s (
As no export industry currently exists, and given the proximity of the Falkland Islands to Chile, we assume the same export value per dry tonne for harvested kelps. Average export price of dry Lessonia spp. kelp out of Chile in 2009 for the alginate industry was US$ 950 per tonne (
Modelling outputs using remote sensing data gave an estimated total coverage of kelp forest surrounding the Falkland Islands of 830.1 km2 in 2019 (Fig.
Overall values of Macrocystis pyrifera density were highly variable, ranging between ~ 0.02 and 2.75 thalli/m2 across all surveys, with a mean value of 0.293 thalli/m2 (SE = ± 0.051) in spring, averaged across all years. Autumn density values were similar at 0.249 thalli/m2 (SE = ± 0.039) averaged across all years. Overall values of Lessonia spp. density were again highly variable, ranging between 0.025 and 4.4 thali (whole plants)/m2 across all surveys, with a mean value of 0.642 thalli/m2 (SE = ± 0.069) in spring, averaged across all years. Autumn density values were 0.716 thalli/m2 (SE = ± 0.082) averaged across all years.
The above seasonal density values resulted in an average of 0.12 million tonnes of CO2e estimated to be stored in standing M. pyrifera vegetation, with a spring peak density equivalent to 0.21 million tonnes CO2e. The average overall CO2 stored by Lessonia spp. in the Falkland Islands is 0.30 million tonnes of CO2e in spring and 0.37 million tonnes of CO2e in autumn, assuming an equal proportion of L. flavicans and L. trabeculata within all surveys. Total seasonal CO2e stored by standing kelp plants across the Falkland Islands (within the aerially-mapped extent) and respective biomass values are shown in Table
Published values of total thallus wet and dry weight, mean population density, and carbon content for Lessonia flavicans, L. trabeculata and Macrocystis pyrifera. * M. pyrifera values based on estimations by Reed & Bzezinski (2009). † M. pyrifera values adapted from van Tussenbroek (1993), Lessonia spp. values adapted from Tala & Edding (2007). Total stored carbon estimated over the 831 km2 mapped Falkland Island extent. Density values based on overall density of Lessonia spp. from 2008-2016 assuming a 50% split of species types.
Kelp characteristic |
Lessonia flavicans |
Lessonia trabeculata |
Macrocystis pyrifera |
|||
Spring |
Autumn |
Spring |
Autumn |
Spring |
Autumn |
|
Typical population density (plants per m2)† |
6 ±1 |
8 ± 3 |
5 ± 2 |
5 ± 2 |
0.62 |
0.72 |
Plant biomass wet weight (kg m-2) † |
12 ±3 |
12 ± 4 |
17 ± 4 |
21 ± 2 |
8.0 |
1.4 |
Plant biomass dry weight (kg m-2) † |
1.62 ±0.44 |
2.23 ± 0.60 |
4.55 ± 1.05 |
5.78 ± 0.75 |
0.8 |
0.14 |
Dry weight per plant (kg) † |
0.27 ± 0.04 |
0.29 ± 0.12 |
1.04 ± 0.47 |
1.28 ± 0.40 |
1.29 |
0.19 |
Dry weight as percentage of wet weight (per plant, i.e. holdfast, stipe, and blades)* |
13.7 |
18.3 |
26.6 |
26.0 |
10.0 |
10.0 |
Percentage C g-1 dry weight† |
27.23 ±1.07 |
23.44 ± 1.92 |
22.32 ± 0.69 |
21.21 ± 0.75 |
30.0 |
30.0 |
Average surveyed density from 2008-2016 (plants m-2) |
0.64 |
0.72 |
0.64 |
0.72 |
0.29 |
0.25 |
Average amount of Carbon (kg m-2)* |
0.05 |
0.05 |
0.15 |
0.19 |
0.07 |
0.01 |
Total carbon (tonnes) |
39,180 |
40,401 |
123,705 |
161,357 |
57,774 |
8,716 |
Total CO2e (tonnes) |
143,662 |
148,137 |
453,583 |
591,641 |
211,838 |
31,958 |
Applying the mean productivity value of 985 g C m-2 yr-1 (
Rounded minimum, average, and maximum estimated values of carbon sequestered from the Falkland Islands kelp forests per year, based on current known distribution and NPP rates of 670-1300 g C m-2 yr-1.
Sequestration route |
Carbon year-1 |
||
Minimum |
Average |
Maximum |
|
POC buried in shelf (Tg) |
0.005 |
0.007 |
0.009 |
POC exported to deep sea (Tg) |
0.013 |
0.019 |
0.025 |
DOC exported below the mixed layer (Tg) |
0.038 |
0.056 |
0.074 |
Total sequestered blue carbon (Tg) |
0.055 |
0.081 |
0.107 |
Total sequestered CO2 (million tonnes) |
0.203 |
0.299 |
0.3945 |
The combined total peak estimate of CO2 equivalent carbon stored in standing giant and understorey kelp species within the satellite-derived mapped extent of kelp forest in the Falkland Islands is 0.58 million tonnes. Averaged (central estimate) total sequestration to the deep sea is 0.299 million tonnes of CO2 annually. Based on non-traded high-series carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) values (
Coastal algae and seagrass beds were collectively estimated by
Indirect value calculations for the nutrient-cycling benefit of Falkland Island kelp systems, based on remote-sensed total area. USD = United States Dollars, GBP = Great British Pounds.
Value parameters |
Indirect value |
Total area of kelp (Falkland Islands) |
830 Km2 |
Total area of kelp (Falkland Islands) |
83,009 Ha |
Value of nutrient cycling of seagrass / algae beds (based on 2011 values in USD ha-1, from |
$28,916.00 ha-1 year-1 |
Total value in 2007 USD yr-1 (based on |
$2.40 Billion year-1 |
Conversion from 2007 USD to 2020 USD with inflation (1$ = 1.25$) |
$3.00 Billion year-1 |
Total value (conversion from USD to GBP at 0.8) |
£2.40 Billion year-1 |
Six of the 15 major fisheries within the Falkland Islands were found to be reliant on kelp for some period of their life-cycle, based on current knowledge. This includes the kingclip (Genypterus blacodes), Patagonian scallop (Zygochlamys patagonica), Patagonian squid (Doryteuthis gahi), Red cod (Salilota australis), Rock cod (Patagonotothen spp.), and Southern blue whiting (Micromesistius australis). Collectively, these fisheries total an annual harvest value of £129,291,813 (~ 24% of the total commercial fishery harvest value), and £7,049,575 in licence fees (equivalent to ~ 36% of the total licence revenue) for the Falkland Islands (Table
Commercial fisheries of the Falkland Islands (2019/2020). Detailing residency or spawning within Falkland Island kelp systems, 3-year averaged total catch (tonnes), value (sterling) and total annual revenue per species for harvest and licence fees. Kelp-associated species shown in bold with greyed background (* Only a proportion of population, ** only as adults, *** only as larvae).
Common name | Scientific name | Code (FAO) | Resident in kelp forest | Spawning within kelp | Total catch (tonnes) Avg 15-17 | Value (£/mt) | Total harvest value | License revenue |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kingclip (Cusk-eel) | Genypterus blacodes | CUS | Yes | No | 2,076 | 1,438 | 2,984,809 | 183,724 |
Patagonian scallop | Zygochlamys patagonica | ZYP | Yes * | Yes | 4 | 2,000 | 8,667 | 0 |
Patagonian squid (Falkland Calamari / Loligo) | Doryteuthis gahi | SQP | Yes | Yes * | 47,149 | 2,500 | 117,871,667 | 6,375,312 |
Red cod | Salilota australis | SAO | Yes ** | No | 2,620 | 405 | 1,061,235 | 146,197 |
Rock cod (mix species) | Patagonotothen spp | PAT | Yes *** | Yes | 12,882 | 405 | 5,217,075 | 64,753 |
Southern blue whiting | Micromesistius australis | POS | Yes *** | No | 3,505 | 613 | 2,148,361 | 279,589 |
Austral hake | Merluccius spp /australis | HKX / HKN | No | No | 238 | 2,182 | 520,043 | 0 |
Common hake | Merluccius hubbsi | HKP | No | No | 19,996 | 787 | 15,736,590 | 1,427,455 |
Grenadier sp | Macrouridae | RTX | No | No | 1,992 | 617 | 1,228,858 | 448,415 |
Hoki (whiptail hake / blue genadier) | Macruronus magellanicus | GRM | No | No | 7,487 | 537 | 4,020,340 | 465,414 |
Illex argentinus (Argentine squid) | Illex argentinus | SQA | No | No | 142,523 | 2,550 | 363,484,958 | 8,549,411 |
Martialia (squid) | Martialia hyadesi | SQS | No | No | 0 | 1,170 | 0 | 0 |
Patagonian toothfish | Dissostichus eleginoides | TOP | No | No | 1,415 | 11,456 | 16,210,240 | 836,770 |
Skates and rays | Rajidae | SRX | No | No | 5,163 | 900 | 4,646,400 | 247,121 |
Other | Osteichthyes/ Chondrichthyes | MZZ/SKX | No | No | 345 | 613 | 211,485 | 360,944 |
Total | 247,393 | 28,173 | 535,350,727 | 19,385,105 | ||||
Total value (kelp associated fisheries) | 129,291,813 | 7,049,575 |
It is important to highlight that while kelp provides habitat directly to these species, the biological and oceanographic influence of kelp to the nearshore environment will also trigger potentially large indirect effects on a range of other species, through trophic links which we are unable to assess fully here.
Based on the
Table
Summary value estimates of services associated with giant kelp forest in the Falkland Islands in 2020. Overall remotely-mapped kelp extent for spatial estimates = 830.1 km2. * Blue carbon stock value given assuming the standing stock protected over ten years and applying the future projected CO2e value. Full values for tourism, scientific research, culture, and coastal protection are still currently data-limited or unknown.
Service |
Value estimate (£GBP year-1) |
Spatial value estimate (£GBP km-2 year-1) |
Blue carbon stock | 0.703 million* | 84,721 |
Blue carbon sequestration | 31.07 million | 37,436 |
Nutrient cycling | 2,400.29 million | 2.89 million |
Associated commercial fisheries value | 126.3 million | 152,177 |
Alginate industry (non-use) | 64.19 million | 77,337 |
TOTAL | 2,692.17 million | 3.24 million |
The total estimated value of the assessed ecosystem services which are provided by the Falkland Islands’ satellite-mapped kelp forests in 2020, was ~ £2.692 billion per year (or £3.24 million GBP km-2 year-1). This overall monetary value is constructed using estimated values of both direct and indirect services provided by the kelp system as a whole. Indirect services included atmospheric carbon stored or sequestered to the deep sea by Macrocystis pyrifera and Lessonia kelps, as well as nutrients which are fixed or recycled within the kelp forests. Direct services included the harvest value of kelp-associated commercial fisheries and the theoretical harvest value of the kelp itself for alginate chemicals used in industry. Despite the differences created by ecosystem service valuations in different locations around the world, our estimates of total value are comparable to other studies that attempted complete economic valuation of giant kelp forests elsewhere (
Nutrient cycling was found to be the most valuable service provided by the kelp ecosystem in terms of monetary value. However, values used to estimate nutrient cycling were not Falkland Islands specific, but rather integrated a broad range of estimates calculated for a range of global habitats (including tropical seagrass) (
After nutrient cycling, the next most valuable service was provided by the fisheries and then the climate-buffering service of carbon sequestration. As expected, carbon standing stock value was quite low relative to the other services (based on current CO2e values), with the total value cycling up and down again seasonally through the year as the kelp grows and dies-back (
Carbon storage
In terms of the climate buffering benefit from carbon capture, the study showed that the Falkland Islands likely sequesters 0.299 million tonnes of CO2 annually (at a conservative minimum estimate). This amount represents an additional annual contribution of approximately 0.1% of current UK net emissions (364.1 million tonnes CO2e/year in 2018) towards their Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) legally committed to through the Paris Agreement. UK’s current NDC commitment is a reduction of 61% from 1990 baseline levels of ~ 601 million tonnes CO2e per year, by 2030 (www.gov.uk). While the contribution from Falkland Islands kelp is relatively small, this is a year-on-year national-scale positive benefit from simply maintaining the natural habitat at its current extent and condition, even applying our conservative estimates.
This element of the study would benefit from additional research in a number of areas. Firstly, it is important to have long-term data on the annual variation in the extent of kelp forests around the Falkland Islands to quantify trends in abundance and distribution (and the rate of change). More detailed analyses and predictions on depth and density/condition (health) of the kelp would also allow for improved estimates of total biomass and management. This study assumes a consistent density across the distribution and uses known biomass estimates from kelp collected at ~ 5 m only (
Secondly, while smaller kelps such as Lessonia spp. were included in this analysis, their full extent is actually larger than that of Macrocystis pyrifera. Lessonia spp. exist in additional locations and at a range of depths. Improving our confidence in the full extent of Lessonia spp., along with the vertical extent of deeper-water kelps from all species (which are not visible from above the water), would improve management and likely increase the overall valuation amount significantly. Increased confidence in total distribution around the Falkland Islands, especially in deep waters, could potentially be achieved through collection of acoustic backscatter data to identify presence of vegetation (
Thirdly, a missing element to this valuation study is in the quantification of the amount of carbon already sequestered to the deep sea sediments from the kelp forests over the last centuries. Given current estimates of sequestration rates, this value is likely to be substantial, which should be a consideration of any future deep-sea fishing/extraction/damaging activities in these deep highly-sedimented areas. It is also worth considering the potentially significant additional carbon added to the sequestration pathway through degraded phytoplankton, waste, and carbon immobilised within dead consumer’s tissues (
It is important to note that carbon valuation elements, such as the ‘Social Cost of Carbon’ (SCC) method used to create aspects of the non-market value, is essentially a construct that we as people have applied. Therefore, SCC incorporates a large amount of uncertainty, ethical judgements, political beliefs and regional variation. While SCC is very useful as a tool for conceptualising value and debating cost-benefits of a service for policy-making, it is not an absolute value, and so values will likely change over time as knowledge and perceptions change. Aligned with the variation in possible SCC values, other values which feed into the overall valuation of the carbon market, including the cost of oil, are also variable and are liable to become rapidly outdated.
Fisheries harvest
Licence fees from fisheries which are associated with the kelp forest systems amount to an average annual revenue of £7,049,575 to the Falkland Island Government or £8,493 km-2 of kelp. Within our study, we have only evaluated the harvested commercial catch. Consequently, this estimate of the ecosystem provisioning service does not account for additional non-commercial or unharvested fish which are dependent on the system (which may sustain charismatic tourist-friendly species such as dolphins, penguins or sea lions). The harvest value is also changeable, based on market prices and catch quotas, and different fishery species may become commercially valuable in the future.
Data were limited on the proportion of the population of each fishery that is dependent on the kelp forests, and on the extent to which this habitat’s presence and health will influence the continuation of the fishery. We assume here that, if any aspect of the fisheries’ life-cycle is associated with or influenced by the kelp forest, the fishery is wholly reliant on the habitat, which may not be the case. Furthermore, we have limited information on the complete influence of the kelp inshore environment on surrounding adult or planktonic species, or a complete understanding of the likely complex trophic links which exist. Therefore, more fisheries may be indirectly linked to kelp and this is an area in need of further research.
Nutrient cycling
The greatest individual ecosystem service value comes from kelp’s ability to recycle nutrients and clean coastal waters. Without appropriate management of kelp forest systems, this service may become degraded, lowering the overall water quality surrounding the coasts and reducing productivity in associated fisheries that utilise these nutrients (
Kelp harvest
If the hypothetical alginate industry were to be instigated in the Falkland Islands, an appropriate management strategy and impact evaluation would be necessary in order to harvest kelp sustainably. This would need to include research into the least damaging harvest times, the extent of impact it would cause, and the optimal method of extraction. Linked to any such work would be a cost-benefit analysis of how this activity would affect the other services shown in this work and the important associated biodiversity. Additionally, in a similar fashion to carbon market values, the market values of harvested kelp-associated fish and kelp itself for the alginate industry, can also rapidly change. This is demonstrated well in the 171% increase in the export value of Lessonia-derived alginate from 1999 to 2009 (
Marine systems often hold important cultural, historical or religious values for people which live close to them and rely on their services for their livelihoods or well-being (
In a similar fashion to cultural services, nature-based tourism can bring significant revenue for coastal communities through visitor’s appreciation of an area’s beauty, history or recreation, alongside the associated hospitality businesses. Coral reefs, for instance, are thought to provide a value of nearly US$36 billion, or over 9% of all coastal tourism value in the world's coral reef countries (
The coastal protection provided by natural systems such as coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrass is substantial, reducing wave heights by up to 71% and attenuating water flow (
Finally, as kelp is a foundation species and ecosystem engineer, the ecological and functional role of this habitat and the species which rely on it has been the focus of much scientific research and monitoring. The habitat therefore has value in terms of creation of research grants, associated travel and subsistence expenses within local businesses, and broader value for society through the creation of knowledge. In the northern region of neighbouring Chile, the estimated annual investment, in terms of scientific and applied research, in their kelp systems was US $66,174 annually or US $25,957,253 projected over 10 years (
The Falkland Islands’ kelp system appears to be healthy and stable based on the data currently available. However, a great deal of uncertainty still exists over how this and other kelp habitats globally will fare into the future (
While the majority of the local threats can be managed, uncertainty associated with broader climate-induced impacts on kelp and its associated communities, is likely to be the highest concern over the coming years (
While not directly valued in this study, biodiversity plays a key role in providing the basis of many ecosystem services. Large healthy systems which are highly biodiverse can therefore improve the value of services and the systems are more likely to be sustainable (
This study illustrates that the Falkland Islands’ kelp forests supply a range of valuable services to people, which are important both locally and globally. Thanks to the area's geographical isolation and low population, the kelp system currently appears healthy and stable. If future detrimental environmental changes, such as increased local pollution, introduction of unsustainable fisheries, or rapid temperature rise were to occur, we would expect to see declines in terms of habitat distribution and condition. If the system were to decline on a large scale, the loss of direct ecosystem service benefits to the Falkland Islands and the loss of wider benefits to the world through its indirect services, would be substantial and costly. Close monitoring of habitat extent and active management of local stressors will be key to the long term stability of the system, and ensure continued flow of multiple ecosystems services to society.
The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union, under the programme Pilot Project - Mapping and Assessing the State of Ecosystems and their Services in the Outermost Regions and Overseas Countries and Territories: establishing links and pooling resources, MOVE Project (MOVE-Facilitating MAES to support regional policy in Overseas Europe: mobilizing stakeholders and pooling resources, grant agreement Nº 07.027735/2018/776517/SUB/ENV.D2, www.moveproject.eu). This publication reflects the views only of the authors, and the European Commission Directorate cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
We acknowledge the contribution to this piece of work made by the IMS-GIS data centre (Falkland Islands) through provision of data. We also acknowledge the Shallow Marine Surveys Group for the collection of the in-situ field data on kelp species density. The habitat models mapping Macrocystis kelp around the Falkland Islands were an output from the DPLUS065 Coastal Habitat Mapping project for the Falklands and South Georgia. DPLUS065 was grant-aided by the Darwin Initiative through UK Government funding and led by the South Atlantic Environmental Research Institute, in collaboration with the JNCC, Oregon State University, Falkland Islands Government, Government of South Georgia & the South Sandwich Islands, and the Shallow Marine Surveys Group.
European Union represented by European Commission Directorate - General Environment. Pilot Project — Mapping and assessing the state of ecosystems and their services in the outermost regions and overseas countries and territories: Establishing links and pooling resources (reference ENV/2017/CFP/MAES-OR-OCT)
MOVE - Facilitating MAES to support regional policy in Overseas Europe: mobilising stakeholders and pooling resources, GA Nº 07.027735/2018/776517/SUB/ENV.D2
Summarised data inputs, methods and limitations for each kelp ecosystem service assessed in the Falkland Islands. Additional details on fish licenCe and catch value for commercial Falkland Islands species.