Plant Checklist of the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Norzielawati Salleh; Syazwani Azeman; Ruth Kiew; Imin Kamin; Richard Cheng Kong

doi:10.3897/oneeco.2.e13708

One Ecosystem : Ecosystem Inventory

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Ecosystem Inventory

Plant Checklist of the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Norzielawati Salleh^‡, Syazwani Azeman^‡, Ruth Kiew^‡, Imin Kamin^‡, Richard Chung Cheng Kong^‡

‡ Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia

Corresponding author: Norzielawati Salleh (norzielawati@frim.gov.my)

Academic editor: Brian D. Fath

Received: 16 May 2017 | Accepted: 23 Aug 2017 | Published: 30 Aug 2017

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Citation: Salleh N, Azeman S, Kiew R, Kamin I, Cheng Kong R (2017) Plant Checklist of the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. One Ecosystem 2: e13708. https://doi.org/10.3897/oneeco.2.e13708

Abstract

Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve, the oldest forest reserve in Malaysia established in 1900, lies in the center of Kuala Lumpur, the capital city. Over time it has been reduced from 17.5 ha to 9.37 ha but still retains important biodiversity. Its lowland equatorial rain forest has never been logged and tall emergent species to 35 m tall and 124 cm diameter persist. Since 1900, 499 plant species (2 lycophytes, 25 ferns, 39 monocots and 433 dicots) have been recorded. This year-long survey refound 425 species, including the rare Tarenna rudis (Rubiaceae), a local endemic found only in Selangor state. The multi-layered structure of lowland dipterocarp forest (16 Diperocarpaceae species were recorded) is intact. However, with diminishing size, the edge effect is more pronounced with secondary forest species, from trees to herbs, becoming established. In 2009, declared as the KL Forest Eco Park, it is important for its biodiversity, history, accessibility to the public for recreation (forest walks), scientific study, education (natural history, bird-watching, etc), as well as serving as a green lung in the bustling city. Baseline data, such as this survey, enables scientific management that will maintain the forest structure and biodiversity.

Keywords

Inventory, Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve, biodiversity, common species, invasive species, cultivated species

Introduction

Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve (BNFR), formerly known as the Weld Hill Forest Reserve, was gazetted in 1900 and is the oldest forest reserve in the country. In 1930, its name was changed to Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve and in 1934, it was gazetted as a Wildlife Reserve and Bird Sanctuary. In 1950, the central pristine section of about 5 ha was gazetted as a Virgin Jungle Reserve (VJR) for the purpose of research and experiment (Putz 1978). Until now, the area still remains as a VJR (JPSM 2007).

It is a historic site. During the early years of Kuala Lumpur’s formation in the 19^th century, there were pitched battles between Raja Mahadi bin Raja Sulaiman and Raja Abdullah bin Raja Jaafar (JPSM 2007). The forested hill was the site of a fort and, according to historical accounts, prickly pineapples (‘nanas’ in Malay) were planted all around the fortress to deter attackers because, at that time, soldiers were barefooted. Raja Mahadi was defeated in 1874, thus ending the war. To commemorate the war, the locals called the hill Bukit Nanas (‘bukit’ means hill). Recently, a 10-metre tunnel was discovered. It is believed that the tunnel was used to store weapons, food and perhaps even treasure and was part of a complex of underground tunnels that have disappeared over time with developments in the area (Nair 2015). Another suggestion is that during the Klang or Selangor Civil War between 1867 and 1874, the Mandahiling community used the narrow tunnel to launch surprise attacks or as an escape passage from their enemies.

Because of its accessibility, the forest has long suffered from encroachment and even war activities in the last forty years, it has seen many changes. In the late 1970s, the hill was the site of a small cable car project, but the project was scrapped soon after and the cable car service was shut down and dismantled (Kiew et al. 1985). City Hall relocated a troupe of silvered leaf monkeys (Trachypithecus cristatus) into the forest that have since become residents in the forest (The Star 1986). During 1996, about 1 ha of the area was taken up for building the KL Tower and other purposes (JPSM 2007). Today, the area of BNFR is reduced to 9.37 ha (Latiff 2010) from its original area of 17.5 ha and is now surrounded by buildings and busy roads. On 12^th November 2009, Dato Sri Douglas Uggah Embas, the former Minister of Natural Resources and Environment Malaysia, officially launched this last remnant of pristine forest in Kuala Lumpur as the KL Forest Eco Park, (Latiff 2010) for three main reasons: it is the only primary lowland rain forest that still remains intact in the city; it is rich in flora and fauna (formerly it was home to the Malayan tiger and elephant, but it still harbours monkeys, pythons, squirrels, and monitor lizards and a variety of birds); and it is the oldest forest reserve in the country.

As the only remaining rain forest in the city of Kuala Lumpur, BNFR is the 'Green Lung' of Kuala Lumpur by purifying the air of its dust and toxic pollutants (Latiff 2010). It enables the general public to experience, explore and enjoy the beauty of nature. It is home to a rich variety of flora that flourishes within the forest including shrubs, trees, herbs, ferns, climbers, palms, bamboos and other indigenous plants. It is also refuge for fauna. As a recreation forest for the public, several nature trails accessible to visitors run through the forest. Facilities for visitors inside the forest include the Forest Information Centre, bird watching area, canopy walk, playground, exercise stations, picnic benches and access to the KL Tower. Entrance is free and the forest is open from 8 am until 6 pm daily.

Today, BNFR (3°09'N, 101°42'E) is a landmark in the capital city Kuala Lumpur (Fig. 1). It is a hilly area about 225 m above sea level (Putz 1978). Based on records from the Department of Forestry, the highest point on the hill itself is 280 m at the main entrance to the KL Tower. The forest experiences an equatorial climate that is hot and humid all year round. The average temperature is 26.7°C with a daily maximum of 33°C and a minimum night temperature of 24°C.

Figure 1.

Location of the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Objectives of the study

To make a comprehensive study of the vascular plants by collecting specimens and taking photos in BNFR.
To assess the biodiversity value of BNFR.
To assess changes in species composition in the last hundred years.
To identify whether weedy or alien species have started to invade the BNFR and endanger the native species.

Materials and Methods

Data collection

This checklist is specimen-based using both herbarium specimens and specimens collected during the field survey. The earliest collections date from 1901. Major collectors were forest rangers who worked in the Forest Department include Hashim bin Mohamed, Hamid bin Mohamed Sah and Ahmad bin A. Bakar. Their collections are deposited in the Herbarium of Forest Research Institute Malaysia (KEP) and also in the Herbarium of Singapore Botanic Gardens (SING). The collections in KEP used the Forest Research Institute (FRI) numbers while collections in SING used the Conservator of Forest series numbers (CF and SFN). Herbarium specimen data from KEP for the period 1901 to 2014 was accessed using the Botanical Research and Herbarium Management System (BRAHMS) database programme. Herbarium specimen data from our current survey is accessioned in BRAHMS and for vouchers (sterile specimens) in an electronic file available in Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM). Existing published plant lists, those of Henderson (1928) and the Forest Department of Kuala Lumpur (JPSM 2007), in general did not cite specimen. Some specimens on Henderson’s plant list were tracked down in SING. For others, identifications could not be verified so any considered doubtful were discarded.

Field survey

Field surveys were carried out three times per month from April 2015 until May 2016. Plant specimens were collected by exploring along existing paths and trails, namely the Jelutong, Penarahan, Suboh, Merawan and Arboretum Trails and the Bamboo Walk (Fig. 2) in such a way as to cover all types of terrain and habitats. Almost all the 9.37 ha of BNFR was inventoried. All species were collected when first sight or whenever there was doubt regarding their identity. Fertile specimens deposited in KEP herbarium were individually numbered using the FRI number series with data recorded in the KEP field collection book. Duplicates are deposited in the herbarium of Taman Botani Perdana, Kuala Lumpur City Hall. Sterile plant material was also collected and made into voucher specimens under a BN number series and are deposited in Taman Botani Perdana, Kuala Lumpur City Hall. The plants were pressed, dried and mounted on paper to serve as a permanent record (Bridson and Forman 1992). In addition, spirit collection of flowers and fruits were also made. The photographic record included images of the flowers, fruits, bark, inner bark, crown and habit.

Figure 2.

The trails in the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Reproduced with permission from Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia, JPSM).

Some parts of BNFR have been cleared for the infrastructure purposes such as the canopy walk, waterfall, kiosk, and road. This might have affected several species of forest plant. Some species recorded during the JPSM 2006 survey were not recollected during our survey and might have totally disappeared because of the clearing of the forest area. There are also several species that have been wrongly identified or only identified to genus during previous surveys. These are omitted from our checklist. In addition, indigenous plants that are cultivated by the forest management have also been excluded from the checklist to avoid future confusion about which is parts of the original flora of BNFR. Weed species are also excluded.

Species identification

Identification of specimens was made with the help of expert KEP staff and/or by comparing the specimens with those in the KEP herbarium and by consulting the literature. The main references used were the Flora of the Malay Peninsula (Ridley 1922, Ridley 1923, Ridley 1924a, Ridley 1924b, Ridley 1925), the Tree Flora of Malaya (Whitmore 1972, Whitmore 1973, Ng 1978, Ng 1989), Pocket Checklist of Timber Trees (K.M Kochummen (Wyatt-Smith 1999), Flora of Peninsular Malaysia (Kiew et al. 2010, Kiew et al. 2011, Kiew et al. 2012, Kiew et al. 2013, Kiew et al. 2015, Parris et al. 2013, Parris et al. 2010), Wayside Trees of Malaya (Corner 1988) and Plants in Tropical Cities (Min et al. 2014). Turner (Turner 1997) was used for information on species distribution. The authority of each species was checked using The Plant List (The Plant List 2016) while the name of family follow The Plant List, Turner and Flora of Peninsular Malaysia.

Endemic species are defined as being restricted to a particular place, e.g. to Peninsular Malaysia or to Selangor. Selangor is a state in Peninsular Malaysia and now surrounds the capital city of Kuala Lumpur that was once under Selangor's territorial sovereignty. Native species are defined as indigenous species; naturalised species are exotic species that are self-sustaining and have spreading populations. Common species are species that exist in large numbers and are abundant. Primary species are species that live in the undisturbed or pristine forest; secondary species are those that invade open areas of disturbed forest that is generally unstable and represents successional stages.

Assessment of conservation status

The conservation status assessment is based on the Malaysia Plant Red List 2010 (Peninsular Malaysia Dipterocarpaceae) that was derived from (Chua et al. 2010) and also Flora of Peninsular Malaysia (Kiew et al. 2010, Kiew et al. 2011, Kiew et al. 2012, Kiew et al. 2013, Kiew et al. 2015, Parris et al. 2013, Parris et al. 2010). The assessment was based on the baseline information contained in the Taxon Data Information Sheet (TDIS). The TDIS comprises scientific name, taxonomy details, common names, habitat preferences, geographical range, general distribution pattern, population decline, threats, Red List Category and Criteria, a rationale for the listing, current conservation measures, utilisation, literature used in assessment, details of assessor(s), date of assessment and names of evaluators. This information is to support the Red List category given to the study taxon. The categories and criteria in the taxon assessment follow the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria version 3.1 (IUCN 2001). There are nine categories in the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Extinct (EX), Extinct in the Wild (EW), Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), Vulnerable (VU), Near Threatened (NT), Least Concern (LC), Data Deficient (DD) and Not Evaluated (NE).

Results and Discussion

Collections

The flora is relatively well known botanically because prior to the establishment of the Forest Research Institute (FRI) in 1926, BNFR was the site used by the many Forest Department officers as a place to study plants (Burkill 1927). The first collections of plant specimens from BNFR, then known as the Weld Hill Forest Reserve, were made in 1901 by Charles Curtis, an English botanist in charge of the Penang Botanic Garden, and in 1908 by Hashim bin Mohamed, a Forest Ranger with the Forest Department (Steenis-Kruseman et al. 1950). Collecting peaked between 1911 and 1920 (Fig. 3) and included 354 specimens. During 1911-1920, many collections were amassed by forest ranger Hashim bin Mohamed, Hamid bin Mohd. Sah, Abdul Rahman and Ahmad bin Abu Bakar. Their collections are deposited in KEP and SING.

Figure 3.

Number of specimens collected from Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve by decade from 1901 to 2016 deposited in the national herbarium (KEP) at Forest Research Institute Malaysia.

Collecting between 1931-2014 continued sporadically by FRI botanists, majorly by Omar bin Mohamed, K.M. Kochummen and C.F. Symington after the establishment of Forest Research Institute (FRI). Specimens were deposited in KEP.

The 2006 survey by the Forestry Department of the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur (JPSM 2007) produced a list of 259 species, unfortunately without citing specimens. The third peak of collectings in 2015/2016, is our survey that collected 680 specimens of which 127 were fertile herbarium specimens and 553 were voucher specimens.

Species diversity

The checklist (Table 1) includes 499 taxa from all verifiable sources, specimens are cited whenever possible, and otherwise their record is indicated by a tick. Sources include 267 monocot and dicot species listed by Henderson (1928), 299 species collected by forest ranger and FRI botanists (1901-2014), 259 species of monocot, dicot and ferns collected by the Forest Department in 2006 (JPSM 2007) and 425 angiosperms, gymnosperms, ferns and lycophytes from our 2015/2016 survey.

Table 1.

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Checklist of the taxa recorded in the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve from 1901 to 2016 including their category (naturalised or native), (weed or forest plant) and forest type (primary or secondary).

(BRAHMS is Kepong Databases where specimens deposited in Kepong Herbarium; Hend. are Henderson survey in 1928; FD is Forest Department survey in 2006 and 15/16 are our survey in 2015-2016. Categories 1 (C1) are abbreviated as follows: T, tree; S, shrub; H, herb; C, climber; E, epiphytes; P, palms. Categories 2 (C2) are classified into two categories: naturalised and native. Forest type (FT) is abbreviated as follows: p, primary forest; s, secondary forest).

Family	Species	BRAHMS	Hend.	FD	15/16	C1	C2	FT
Angiosperms (Dicot)
Acanthaceae	Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anders. subsp. micrantha (Nees) Ensermu			√	√ (BN28)	H	Naturalised	s
Acanthaceae	Lepidagathis sp. 1				√ (FRI84668)	H	Naturalised	s
Achariaceae	Hydnocarpus castanea Hook.f. & Thomson		√		√ (BN507)	T	Native	p
Achariaceae	Hydnocarpus kunstleri (King) Warb.	√ (KEP66647)			√ (BN375)	T	Native	p
Achariaceae	Ryparosa fasciculata King	√ (FRI63516)			√ (BN210)	T	Native	p
Achariaceae	Scaphocalyx spathacea Ridl.	√ (SFN40086)	√		√ (BN222)	T	Native	p
Anacardiaceae	Bouea oppositifolia (Roxb.) Adelb.	√ (FMS45820)		√	√ (BN459)	T	Native	p
Anacardiaceae	Dracontomelon dao (Blanco) Merr. & Rolfe		√	√	√ (BN382)	T	Native	p
Anacardiaceae	Gluta curtisii (Oliv.) Ding Hou			√	√ (BN320)	T	Native	p
Anacardiaceae	Gluta malayana (Corner) Ding Hou				√ (BN653)	T	Native	p
Anacardiaceae	Gluta wallichii (Hook.f.) Ding Hou				√ (BN656)	T	Native	p
Anacardiaceae	Mangifera foetida Lour.				√ (BN413)	T	Native	p
Anacardiaceae	Pentaspadon motleyi Hook.f.				√ (BN107)	T	Native	p
Anacardiaceae	Pentaspadon velutinus Hook.f.		√	√	√ (BN555)	T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Alphonsea elliptica Hook.f. & Thomson	√ (CF2832)			√ (BN671)	T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Alphonsea maingayi Hook.f. & Thomson	√ (CF41)	√			T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Anaxagorea javanica Blume				√ (BN162)	T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Dasymaschalon dasymaschalum (Blume) I.M.Turner				√ (BN15)	S&T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Desmos chinensis Lour.	√ (FMS2922)	√		√ (BN393)	S&C	Native	p
Annonaceae	Drepananthus pruniferus Maingay ex Hook.f. & Thomson	√ (FMS8539)	√			T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Enicosanthum fuscum (King) Airy Shaw	√ (FMS43630)				T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Phaeanthus ophthalmicus (Roxb. ex G.Don) J.Sinclair	√ (FRI26027)	√		√ (FRI83020)	T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Polyalthia cinnamomea Hook.f. & Thomson	√ (FMS43629)	√			T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Polyalthia stenopetala (Hook.f. & Thomson) Finet & Gagnep.	√ (FMS45817)			√ (BN655)	T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Popowia pisocarpa (Blume) Endl. ex Walp.	√ (CF2808)	√			T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Trivalvaria macrophylla (Blume) Miq.	√ (KEP98753)				T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Trivalvaria nervosa (Hook. f. & Thomson) J. Sinclair		√			T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Uvaria wrayi (King) L.L.Zhou, Y.C.F.Su & R.M.K.Saunders	√ (FMS4936)	√		√ (BN534)	S&C	Native	p
Annonaceae	Xylopia malayana Hook.f. & Thomson	√ (FMS43632)	√			T	Native	p
Annonaceae	Xylopia subdehiscens (King) J.Sinclair	√ (FMS10464)	√			T	Native	p
Apocynaceae	Alstonia angustiloba Miq.	√ (CF837)			√ (BN497)	T	Native	p
Apocynaceae	Anodendron wrayi King & Gamble				√ (BN427)	C	Native	p
Apocynaceae	Chilocarpus costatus Miq.	√ (FMS10222)	√		√ (BN479)	C	Native	p
Apocynaceae	Dyera costulata (Miq.) Hook.f.	√ (FMS13846)		√	√ (BN338)	T	Native	p
Apocynaceae	Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gardner ex Thwaites	√ (FMS6406)	√		√ (BN537)	T	Native	p
Apocynaceae	Kibatalia maingayi (Hook.f.) Woodson	√ (FMS964)				T	Native	p
Apocynaceae	Leuconotis griffithii Hook.f.	√ (1664)	√			C	Native	p
Apocynaceae	Leuconotis sp. 1				√ (BN428)	C	Native	p
Apocynaceae	Strophanthus caudatus (L.) Kurz	√ (FMS1232)	√			S	Native	p
Apocynaceae	Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. ex Roem. & Schult.				√ (BN134)	S&T	Native	p
Apocynaceae	Tabernaemontana pauciflora Blume	√ (FMS2901)				S&T	Native	p
Apocynaceae	Tabernaemontana peduncularis Wall.				√ (FRI84590)	S&T	Native	p
Aquifoliaceae	Ilex maingayi Hook.f.	√ (232)				T	Native	p
Araliaceae	Polyscias jackiana (G.Don) Lowry & G.M.Plunkett	√ (KEP2882)				T	Native	s
Araliaceae	Polyscias diversifolia (Blume) Lowry & G.M.Plunkett			√	√ (BN668)	T	Native	p
Araliaceae	Schefflera oxyphylla (Miq.) R.Vig.	√ (KEP7440)	√			C	Native	p
Araliaceae	Trevesia burckii Boerl.	√ (KEP353)	√		√ (BN451)	S	Native	p
Aristolochiaceae	Aristolochia acuminata Lam.				√ (BN18)	C	Native	p
Aristolochiaceae	Thottea piperiformis (Griff.) Mabb.	√ (KEP1224)				S	Native	p
Aristolochiaceae	Thottea tricornis Maingay ex Hook.f.	√ (FMS3029)			√ (FRI83059)	S	Native	p
Bignoniaceae	Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz	√ (FMS6366)	√			T	Native	p
Burseraceae	Canarium littorale Blume		√	√	√ (BN37)	T	Native	p
Burseraceae	Canarium patentinervium Miq.	√ (CF1816)	√			T	Native	p
Burseraceae	Canarium pilosum A.W.Benn.	√ (CF9633)	√			T	Native	p
Burseraceae	Dacryodes costata (A.W.Benn.) H.J.Lam				√ (BN430)	T	Native	p
Burseraceae	Santiria apiculata A.W.Benn.				√ (FRI84673)	T	Native	p
Calophyllaceae	Kayea lepidota Pierre	√ (CF12906)				T	Native	p
Calophyllaceae	Mesua ferrea L.	√ (CF9525)		√	√ (BN93)	T	Native	p
Cannabaceae	Gironniera nervosa Planch.	√ (KEP17467)		√	√ (FRI84565)	T	Native	p
Cannabaceae	Gironniera subaequalis Planch.		√		√ (BN506)	T	Native	p
Cannabaceae	Trema cannabina Lour.				√ (FRI83049)	T	Native	p
Celastraceae	Salacia macrophylla Blume				√ (FRI84589)	C	Native	p
Clusiaceae	Calophyllum canum Hook.f. ex T.Anderson	√ (KEP99519)				T	Native	p
Clusiaceae	Calophyllum inophyllum L.	√ (904)			√ (BN125)	T	Native	p
Clusiaceae	Calophyllum rubiginosum M.R.Hend. & Wyatt-Sm.	√ (2615)				T	Native	p
Clusiaceae	Garcinia cowa Roxb. ex Choisy				√ (BN151)	T	Native	p
Clusiaceae	Garcinia dumosa King	√ (SFN40090)				T	Native	p
Clusiaceae	Garcinia griffithii T.Anderson				√ (BN56)	T	Native	p
Clusiaceae	Garcinia nervosa Miq.			√	√ (BN495)	T	Native	p
Clusiaceae	Garcinia parvifolia (Miq.) Miq.		√	√	√ (BN539)	T	Native	p
Clusiaceae	Garcinia prainiana King				√ (BN587)	T	Native	p
Clusiaceae	Garcinia hombroniana Pierre				√ (BN327)	T	Native	p
Combretaceae	Combretum sundaicum Miq.	√ (FMS11236)				S	Native	p
Combretaceae	Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.				√ (BN674)	T	Native	p
Combretaceae	Terminalia citrina Roxb. ex Fleming	√ (FMS2492)	√			T	Native	p
Compositae	Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L.				√ (FRI83071)	H	Naturalised	s
Compositae	Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore				√ (FRI83029)	H	Naturalised	s
Compositae	Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham.	√ (FMS128)				H	Native	p
Connaraceae	Agelaea macrophylla (Zoll.) Leenh.				√ (BN52)	C	Native	p
Connaraceae	Ellipanthus tomentosus Kurz	√ (FRI2038)				S	Native	p
Cornaceae	Alangium ebenaceum (C.B.Clarke) Harms	√ (KEP562)	√			T	Native	p
Cornaceae	Alangium griffithii (C.B.Clarke) Harms	√ (KEP8538)	√		√ (BN38)	T	Native	p
Cucurbitaceae	Melothria pendula L.				√ (FRI83061)	H	Naturalised	s
Dichapetalaceae	Dichapetalum griffithii (Hook.f.) Engl.				√ (FRI83075)	C	Native	p
Dilleniaceae	Dillenia indica L.	√ (FMS16470)				T	Native	p
Dilleniaceae	Dillenia reticulata King	√ (CF11769)		√	√ (BN266)	T	Native	p
Dilleniaceae	Dillenia suffruticosa (Griff.) Martelli			√	√ (FRI83043)	T	Native	s
Dilleniaceae	Tetracera indica (Christm. & Panz.) Merr.				√ (BN26)	C	Native	s
Dilleniaceae	Tetracera macrophylla Wall. ex Hook. f. & Thoms.	√ (FMS42948)				C	Native	p
Dilleniaceae	Tetracera scandens (L.) Merr.	√ (FMS12807)		√		C	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Anisoptera costata Korth.	√ (32667)			√ (BN659)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Anisoptera marginata Korth.	√ (CF36029)				T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Dipterocarpus baudii Korth.	√ (KEP72437)	√	√	√ (FRI84566)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Dipterocarpus crinitus Dyer		√		√ (BN341)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Dryobalanops aromatica C.F.Gaertn.	√ (FMS24830)		√	√ (BN365)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Hopea beccariana Burck			√	√ (BN608)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Hopea mengerawan Miq.	√ (FMS14835)				T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea assamica Dyer				√ (BN571)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea bracteolata Dyer	√ (FMS5042)	√	√	√ (BN69)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea curtisii Dyer ex King			√	√ (BN627)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea dasyphylla Foxw.	√ (FMS41634)			√ (BN120)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea glauca King				√ (BN94)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea leprosula Miq.	√ (743)	√	√	√ (BN67)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea ovalis Blume			√	√ (BN631)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea sumatrana (Slooten) Desch	√ (FMS23202)		√	√ (FRI83035)	T	Native	p
Dipterocarpaceae	Vatica odorata (Griff.) Symington	√ (56714)				T	Native	p
Ebenaceae	Diospyros argentea Griff.	√ (KEP834)	√	√	√ (BN217)	T	Native	p
Ebenaceae	Diospyros maingayi (Hiern) Bakh.				√ (BN254)	T	Native	p
Ebenaceae	Diospyros pendula Hasselt ex Hassk.				√ (BN642)	T	Native	p
Ebenaceae	Diospyros sumatrana Miq.	√ (FMS8534)	√			T	Native	p
Ebenaceae	Diospyros wallichii King & Gamble	√ (FMS12904)		√	√ (FRI83062)	T	Native	p
Ebenaceae	Diospyros lanceifolia Roxb.	√ (KEP2484)	√			T	Native	p
Elaeocarpaceae	Elaeocarpus ferrugineus (Jack) Steud.	√ (CF2644)				T	Native	p
Elaeocarpaceae	Elaeocarpus petiolatus (Jacq.) Wall.	√ (FMS4934)		√	√ (BN548)	T	Native	p
Elaeocarpaceae	Elaeocarpus stipularis Blume	√ (CF899)				T	Native	p
Euphorbiaceae	Agrostistachys gaudichaudii Müll.Arg.				√ (BN99)	T	Native	p
Euphorbiaceae	Balakata baccata (Roxb.) Esser			√	√ (BN83)	T	Native	p
Euphorbiaceae	Botryophora geniculata (Miq.) Beumée ex Airy Shaw	√ (FMS45819)				T	Native	p
Euphorbiaceae	Cheilosa montana Blume	√ (FMS40625)	√			T	Native	p
Euphorbiaceae	Elateriospermum tapos Blume	√ (SFN40079)	√	√	√ (BN10)	T	Native	p
Euphorbiaceae	Endospermum diadenum (Miq.) Airy Shaw	√ (850)		√	√ (BN104)	T	Native	p
Euphorbiaceae	Epiprinus malayanus Griff.	√ (CF1817)	√		√ (BN340)	T	Native	p
Euphorbiaceae	Macaranga conifera (Rchb.f. & Zoll.) Müll.Arg.	√ (FMS2852)				T	Native	s
Euphorbiaceae	Macaranga gigantea (Rchb.f. & Zoll.) Müll.Arg.		√	√	√ (FRI83058)	T	Native	s
Euphorbiaceae	Macaranga tanarius (L.) Müll.Arg.				√ (BN198)	T	Native	s
Euphorbiaceae	Macaranga triloba (Thunb.) Müll.Arg.	√ (FMS43)	√	√	√ (BN215)	T	Native	s
Euphorbiaceae	Mallotus macrostachyus (Miq.) Müll.Arg.	√ (FMS10)				T	Native	s
Euphorbiaceae	Mallotus paniculatus (Lam.) Müll.Arg.	√ (FMS874)		√	√ (BN199)	T	Native	s
Euphorbiaceae	Neoscortechinia kingii (Hook.f.) Pax & K.Hoffm.	√ (FMS5412)				T	Native	p
Euphorbiaceae	Pimelodendron griffithianum (Müll.Arg.) Benth. ex Hook.f.	√ (FMS2804)		√	√ (BN589)	T	Native	p
Euphorbiaceae	Ptychopyxis costata Miq. var. oblanceolata Airy Shaw	√ (11695)	√			T	Native	p
Fagaceae	Castanopsis inermis (Lindl.) Benth. & Hook.f.	√ (FMS10287)	√		√ (BN637)	T	Native	p
Fagaceae	Castanopsis javanica (Blume) A.DC.	√ (FMS2871)	√	√	√ (BN258)	T	Native	p
Fagaceae	Castanopsis lucida (Nees) Soepadmo	√ (4737)				T	Native	p
Fagaceae	Castanopsis nephelioides King ex Hook.f.	√ (FMS1818)				T	Native	p
Fagaceae	Castanopsis wallichii King ex Hook.f.	√ (CF9631)				T	Native	p
Fagaceae	Lithocarpus curtisii (King ex Hook.f.) A.Camus	√ (FMS42949)	√			T	Native	p
Fagaceae	Lithocarpus ewyckii (Korth.) Rehder	√ (KEP861)				T	Native	p
Gentianaceae	Fagraea auriculata Jack	√ (908)				T	Native	p
Gentianaceae	Fagraea racemosa Jack		√		√ (FRI84675)	T	Native	p
Hypericaceae	Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Lour.) Blume	√ (FMS926)	√			T	Native	p
Hypericaceae	Cratoxylum formosum (Jacq.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Dyer	√ (66452)		√		T	Native	p
Icacinaceae	Phytocrene bracteata Wall.				√ (BN345)	T	Native	p
Ixonanthaceae	Ixonanthes icosandra Jack	√ (CF586)	√	√	√ (FRI83053)	T	Native	p
Ixonanthaceae	Ixonanthes reticulata Jack	√ (FMS40631)	√		√ (BN304)	T	Native	p
Lamiaceae	Clerodendrum deflexum Wall.		√		√ (FRI84583)	T	Native	p
Lamiaceae	Clerodendrum villosum Blume	√ (FMS8510)	√			T	Native	p
Lamiaceae	Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb.	√ (CF2878)	√			T	Native	p
Lamiaceae	Vitex gamosepala Griff.				√ (BN73)	T	Native	s
Lamiaceae	Vitex longisepala King & Gamble	√ (CF15349)				T	Native	p
Lamiaceae	Vitex vestita Wall. ex Schauer	√ (CF2951)				T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Actinodaphne macrophylla (Blume) Nees	√ (FRI2036)		√	√ (FRI84580)	T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Actinodaphne sesquipedalis Hook.f. & Thomson ex Meisn.	√ (CF607)	√		√ (BN227)	T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Alseodaphne peduncularis (Wall. ex Nees) Meisn.	√ (FMS9565)				T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Beilschmiedia madang Blume	√ (66648)				T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Beilschmiedia perakensis Gamble	√ (FMS2803)	√			T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Cinnamomum iners Reinw.	√ (CF583)				T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Cryptocarya griffithiana Wight	√ (FMS12647)				T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Cryptocarya nitens (Blume) Koord. & Valeton	√ (CF977)	√			T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Lauraceae sp. 1				√ (BN614)	T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Lindera lucida Boerl.	√ (CF851)				T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Litsea castanea Hook.f.	√ (FRI2030)		√	√ (FRI84670)	T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Litsea costalis (Nees) Kosterm.	√ (FMS2914)	√		√ (FRI84578)	T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Litsea elliptica Blume	√ (FMS10938)	√	√	√ (BN561)	T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Litsea ferruginea Blume	√ (FMS5028)	√			T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Litsea sp. 1				√ (BN556)	T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Litsea spathacea Gamble	√ (CF860)				T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Litsea tomentosa Blume	√ (975)	√			T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Litsea umbellata (Lour.) Merr.	√ (FMS11718)	√			T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Neolitsea zeylanica (Nees & T. Nees) Merr.	√ (CF871)	√			T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Nothaphoebe umbelliflora (Blume) Blume		√		√ (BN352)	T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Phoebe elliptica (Blume) Blume	√ (CF7971)				T	Native	p
Lauraceae	Phoebe grandis (Nees) Merr.	√ (FMS3010)	√		√ (BN485)	T	Native	p
Lecythidaceae	Barringtonia fusiformis King				√ (BN187)	T	Native	p
Lecythidaceae	Barringtonia macrostachya (Jack) Kurz	√ (CF915)	√		√ (BN457)	T	Native	p
Lecythidaceae	Barringtonia scortechinii King	√ (FMS11693)	√			T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Albizia splendens Miq.	√ (FMS2822)	√			T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Archidendron bubalinum (Jack) I.C.Nielsen	√ (FMS45822)	√	√		T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I.C.Nielsen	√ (FRI16586)	√			T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Archidendron ellipticum (Blanco) I.C.Nielsen	√ (FMS2809)	√			T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Archidendron jiringa (Jack) I.C.Nielsen		√	√	√ (BN273)	T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Bauhinia audax (de Wit) G.Cusset	√ (FMS2473)	√			T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Bauhinia integrifolia Roxb.	√ (CF7957)	√		√ (BN453)	T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Callerya atropurpurea (Wall.) Schot			√	√ (BN572)	T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Crudia curtisii Prain	√ (CF576)				T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Cynometra cauliflora L.				√ (BN172)	T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Cynometra malaccensis Meeuwen	√ (CF832)		√	√ (BN259)	T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Dialium platysepalum Baker				√ (FRI84671)	T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Falcataria moluccana (Miq.) Barneby & J.W.Grimes	√ (FMS2867)		√	√ (BN31)	T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Fordia albiflora (Prain) Dasuki & Schot	√ (FMS10465)				T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Intsia bijuga (Colebr.) Kuntze				√ (BN213)	T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Ormosia polita Prain	√ (CF2866)	√			T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Parkia speciosa Hassk.	√ (CF2858)		√	√ (FRI84551)	T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Saraca declinata Miq.				√ (BN570)	T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Senna sulfurea (Collad.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby	√ (FMS1197)				T	Naturalised	s
Leguminosae	Senna hirsuta (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby	√ (CF2884)	√			T	Naturalised	s
Leguminosae	Sindora coriacea (Baker) Prain			√	√ (BN516)	T	Native	p
Leguminosae	Sindora wallichii Benth.	√ (CF10466)				T	Native	p
Loganiaceae	Norrisia maior Soler.	√ (FMS43)			√ (BN470)	T	Native	p
Loranthaceae	Scurrula ferruginea (Jack) Danser				√ (BN615)	E	Native	s
Magnoliaceae	Magnolia montana (Blume) Figlar				√ (FRI83040)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Coelostegia griffithii Benth.				√ (BN494)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Commersonia bartramia (L.) Merr.	√ (CF898)				T	Native	s
Malvaceae	Durio griffithii (Mast.) Bakh.	√ (FMS42950)	√	√	√ (FRI83067)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Grewia laevigata Vahl				√ (BN504)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Hibiscus macrophyllus Roxb. ex Hornem.		√	√		T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Kostermansia malayana Soegeng			√	√	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Microcos tomentosa Sm.			√	√ (BN34)	T	Native	s
Malvaceae	Neesia malayana Bakh.			√	√ (BN649)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Pterocymbium tinctorium (Blanco) Merr.		√		√ (BN214)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Scaphium macropodum (Miq.) Beumée ex K.Heyne		√		√ (BN128)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Schoutenia accrescens (Mast.) Curtis				√ (BN137)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Sterculia coccinea Jack				√ (FRI84582)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Sterculia cordata Blume				√ (BN331)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Sterculia hispidissima Ridl.				√ (BN408)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Sterculia megistophylla Ridl.				√ (BN518)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Sterculia parviflora Roxb.		√		√ (BN523)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Sterculia rubiginosa Vent.		√		√ (BN264)	T	Native	p
Malvaceae	Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Corrêa				√ (BN367)	T	Native	p
Melastomataceae	Dissochaeta intermedia Blume var. intermedia				√ (FRI84672)	T	Native	p
Melastomataceae	Memecylon campanulatum C.B.Clarke				√ (BN219)	T	Native	p
Melastomataceae	Memecylon excelsum Blume				√ (BN376)	T	Native	p
Melastomataceae	Memecylon lilacinum Zoll. & Moritzi	√ (FRI32199)	√		√ (FRI84669)	T	Native	p
Melastomataceae	Oxyspora bullata J.F.Maxwell	√ (SFN40084)		√	√ (FRI84557)	T	Native	p
Melastomataceae	Phyllagathis rotundifolia (Jack) Blume			√	√ (BN163)	T	Native	p
Melastomataceae	Pternandra echinata Wall.			√	√	T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Aglaia edulis (Roxb.) Wall.	√ (FMS2814)				T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Aglaia lawii (Wight) C.J.Saldanha ex Ramamoorthy	√ (CF809)	√			T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Aglaia leucophylla King	√ (CF2819)				T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Aglaia tenuicaulis Hiern	√ (CF2479)	√			T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R.Parker	√ (FMS12909)	√			T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Azadirachta excelsa (Jack) Jacobs				√ (BN629)	T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Chisocheton ceramicus Miq.	√ (FMS2844)				T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Chisocheton patens Blume	√ (FMS10463)			√ (BN260)	T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Chisocheton sarawakanus (C.DC.) Harms	√ (FMS1837)				T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Chisocheton sp. 1				√ (BN634)	T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Dysoxylum densiflorum (Blume) Miq.	√ (CF868)				T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Dysoxylum excelsum Blume	√ (FMS256)	√			T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Dysoxylum grande Hiern	√ (KEP2433)				T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Melia azedarach L.	√ (CF864)				T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr.	√ (KEP66451)		√	√ (BN88)	T	Native	p
Meliaceae	Toona sureni (Blume) Merr.			√	√ (BN652)	T	Native	p
Menispermaceae	Coscinium fenestratum (Goetgh.) Colebr			√	√ (BN492)	C	Native	p
Menispermaceae	Fibraurea tinctoria Lour.			√	√ (FRI84572)	C	Native	p
Moraceae	Antiaris toxicaria Lesch.				√ (BN423)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Artocarpus dadah Miq.				√ (BN79)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Artocarpus elasticus Reinw. ex Blume			√	√ (BN512)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.				√ (FRI84595)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Artocarpus hispidus F.M.Jarrett				√ (BN51)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr.				√ (BN632)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Artocarpus nitidus Trécul	√ (FMS10268)		√	√ (BN201)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Artocarpus rigidus Blume				√ (FRI83042)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Artocarpus scortechinii King				√ (BN378)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Ficus aurata (Miq.) Miq.	√ (CF819)	√			T	Native	s
Moraceae	Ficus chartacea (Wall. ex Kurz) Wall. ex King	√ (FMS8503)			√ (BN57)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Ficus deltoidea Jack				√ (BN136)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Ficus glandulifera (Wall. ex Miq.) King	√ (FMS5426)	√		√ (BN48)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Ficus globosa Blume	√ (FMS4701)				T	Native	p
Moraceae	Ficus grossularioides Burm.f.				√ (FRI83068)	T	Native	s
Moraceae	Ficus hispida L.f.	√ (FMS12809)	√	√		T	Native	p
Moraceae	Ficus lepicarpa Blume				√ (BN29)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Ficus microcarpa L.f.				√ (BN122)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Ficus punctata Thunb.	√ (KEP93476)			√ (BN354)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Ficus scortechinii King	√ (CF2337)				T	Native	p
Moraceae	Ficus variegata Blume.				√ (FRI84568)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Ficus vasculosa Wall. ex Miq.	√ (TN289)	√		√ (FRI84552)	T	Native	p
Moraceae	Streblus elongatus (Miq.) Corner	√ (CF15387)	√	√	√ (BN425)	T	Native	p
Myristicaceae	Endocomia canarioides (King) W.J.de Wilde				√ (BN164)	T	Native	p
Myristicaceae	Horsfieldia irya (Gaertn.) Warb.				√ (BN588)	T	Native	p
Myristicaceae	Horsfieldia majuscula Warb.				√ (BN268)	T	Native	p
Myristicaceae	Horsfieldia punctatifolia J.Sinclair	√ (KEP76145)				T	Native	p
Myristicaceae	Horsfieldia sparsa W.J.de Wilde	√ (FMS11697)				T	Native	p
Myristicaceae	Horsfieldia superba Warb.	√ (CF7973)	√			T	Native	p
Myristicaceae	Knema furfuracea (Hook. f. & Thomson) Warb.	√ (CF934)	√			T	Native	p
Myristicaceae	Knema malayana Warb.	√ (CF825)				T	Native	p
Myristicaceae	Knema patentinervia (J.Sinclair) W.J.de Wilde	√ (CF561)			√ (BN232)	T	Native	p
Myristicaceae	Knema pseudolaurina W.J.de Wilde	√ (FMS40627)			√ (BN233)	T	Native	p
Myrsinaceae	Ardisia sessilis Scheff.	√ (KEP17468)				T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Decaspermum fruticosum J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.	√ (FMS5411)				T	Native	s
Myrtaceae	Rhodamnia cinerea Jack	√ (KEP8526)		√	√ (BN82)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium sp. 7	√ (FMS10211)				T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium polyanthum (Wight) Walp. var. polyanthum	√ (CF855)	√		√ (FRI84653)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium sp. 1				√ (BN387)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium sp. 2				√ (BN456)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium sp. 3				√ (BN540)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium sp. 4				√ (BN569)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium sp. 5				√ (BN654)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium sp. 6				√ (BN670)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium attenuatum (Miq.) Merr. & L.M.Perry				√ (BN197)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium borneense (Miq.) Miq.	√ (FMS6407)	√			T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium diospyrifolium (Wall. ex Duthie) S.N.Mitra				√ (BN660)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium fastigiatum (Blume) Merr. & L.M.Perry	√ (FMS5191)				T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium filiforme Wall. ex Duthie var. clavimyrtus I.M.Turner	√ (FMS894)				T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium grande (Wight) Walp.				√ (FRI83015)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium inophyllum DC.	√ (FRI2033)			√ (FRI83065)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium jasminifolium (Ridl.) Chantaran. & J.Parn.	√ (FRI53229)				T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry				√ (BN156)	T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium scortechinii (King) Chantaran. & J.Parn.	√ (FMS2934)	√			T	Native	p
Myrtaceae	Syzygium subdecussatum (Duthie) I.M.Turner	√ (FMS1010)	√		√ (BN78)	T	Native	p
Olacaceae	Erythropalum scandens Blume				√ (BN288.1)	T	Native	p
Olacaceae	Ochanostachys amentacea Mast.	√ (KEP72438)		√	√ (BN58)	T	Native	p
Olacaceae	Strombosia javanica Blume	√ (CF2817)	√	√	√ (BN13)	T	Native	p
Onagraceae	Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell				√ (FRI83072)	H	Naturalised	s
Opiliaceae	Champereia manillana (Blume) Merr.	√ (CF1666)	√	√	√ (BN22)	T	Native	p
Opiliaceae	Lepionurus sylvestris Blume	√ (CF7954)	√			T	Native	p
Pandaceae	Galearia fulva (Tul.) Miq.	√ (KEP1786)	√	√	√ (FRI83024)	T	Native	p
Pandaceae	Microdesmis caseariifolia Planch. ex Hook.	√ (TN223)		√	√	T	Native	p
Passifloraceae	Paropsia varecifomis (Griff.) Mast.		√	√	√ (BN278)	T	Native	p
Actinidiaceae	Saurauia pentapetala (Jack) Hoogland	√ (FMS4574)				T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Antidesma cuspidatum Müll.Arg.	√ (FMS12903)			√ (FRI84556)	T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Aporosa aurea Hook.f.		√		√ (FRI84559)	T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Aporosa benthamiana Hook.f.	√ (FMS4739)	√		√ (BN312)	T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Aporosa frutescens Blume				√ (BN161)	T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Aporosa miqueliana Müll.Arg.	√ (FMS4935)	√			T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Aporosa penangensis (Ridl.) Airy Shaw	√ (CF11688)				T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Aporosa stellifera Hook.f.	√ (FMS15350)				T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Aporosa bracteosa Pax & K.Hoffm.	√ (FMS4576)				T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Aporosa symplocoides (Hook.f.) Gage	√ (CF217)	√			T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Baccaurea brevipes Hook.f.	√ (FMS8505)	√		√	T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Baccaurea macrophylla (Müll.Arg.) Müll.Arg.	√ (CF924)		√		T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Baccaurea motleyana (Müll.Arg.) Müll.Arg.				√ (BN44)	T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Baccaurea parviflora (Müll.Arg.) Müll.Arg.			√	√ (BN225)	T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Baccaurea kunstleri King ex Gage	√ (FMS2879)	√			T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Baccaurea hookeri Gage	√ (FMS2838)				T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Bridelia tomentosa Blume	√ (CF804)			√ (BN284)	T	Native	s
Phyllanthaceae	Glochidion glomerulatum (Miq.) Boerl.	√ (FMS2906)	√			T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Glochidion hypoleucum (Miq.) Boerl.	√ (CF893)				T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Glochidion obscurum (Roxb. ex Willd.) Blume	√ (FMS12808)				T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Glochidion rubrum Blume				√ (BN482)	T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Glochidion superbum Baill. ex Müll.Arg.	√ (CF907)		√		T	Native	p
Phyllanthaceae	Phyllanthus niruri L.				√ (FRI83039)	H	Native	s
Phyllanthaceae	Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr.				√ (FRI83045)	T	Native	p
Piperaceae	Piper caninum Blume	√ (FMS8533)	√		√ (FRI84584)	H	Native	p
Piperaceae	Piper porphyrophyllum N.E.Br.	√ (CF568)	√			H	Native	p
Piperaceae	Piper sarmentosum Roxb.			√	√ (BN91)	H	Native	p
Polygalaceae	Xanthophyllum maingayi Benn.	√ (CF846)	√			T	Native	p
Polygalaceae	Xanthophyllum griffithii Hook.f. ex A.W.Benn.	√ (FMS905)				T	Native	p
Polygalaceae	Xanthophyllum stipitatum A.W.Benn.	√ (CF606)				T	Native	p
Polygalaceae	Xanthophyllum flavescens Roxb.	√ (CF2483)			√ (FRI84594)	T	Native	p
Polygalaceae	Xanthophyllum venosum King	√ (FMS11715)				T	Native	p
Primulaceae	Ardisia colorata Roxb.		√		√ (FRI84652)	T	Native	p
Primulaceae	Ardisia pachysandra (Wall.) Mez	√ (KEP2805)	√			T	Native	p
Primulaceae	Maesa ramentacea (Roxb.) A. DC.	√ (KEP12901)				T	Native	p
Rhamnaceae	Gouania javanica Miq.	√ (FMS2345)	√				Native	p
Rhamnaceae	Ventilago gladiata Pierre	√ (FRI29246)			√ (BN452)	C	Native	p
Rhamnaceae	Ventilago oblongifolia Blume	√ (FMS2481)	√			C	Native	p
Rhizophoraceae	Carallia suffruticosa Ridl.		√		√ (BN546)	T	Native	p
Rhizophoraceae	Gynotroches axillaris Blume				√ (BN467)	T	Native	p
Rhizophoraceae	Pellacalyx saccardianus Scort.	√ (FMS32668)			√ (BN272)	T	Native	p
Rosaceae	Prunus polystachya (Hook.f.) Kalkman	√ (TN222)			√ (BN308)	T	Native	p
Rosaceae	Rosaceae sp. 1				√ (BN582)	T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Canthium depressinerve Ridl.	√ (CF668)				T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Ixora kingstonii Hook.f.	√ (KEP4941)				T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Aidia densiflora (Wall.) Masam.	√ (FRI32200)		√	√ (FRI83054)	T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Canthium confertum Korth.	√ (KEP4577)	√			T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Canthium glabrum Blume	√ (KEP2592)	√			T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Canthium horridum Blume		√		√ (FRI84592)	T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Chassalia chartacea Craib	√ (KEP992)		√	√ (BN020)	T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Greenea commersonii (Korth.) Tange ex Ruhsam	√ (KEP8248)				T	Native	s
Rubiaceae	Greenea corymbosa (Jack) Voigt	√ (914)	√	√	√ (BN102)	T	Native	s
Rubiaceae	Guettarda speciosa L.				√ (BN212)	T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Hedyotis philippinensis (Willd. ex Spreng.) Merr. ex C.B.Rob.				√ (BN388)	H	Native	s
Rubiaceae	Ixora congesta Roxb.	√ (KEP1783)			√ (BN437)	S	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Ixora pendula Jack	√ (KEP2406)	√	√		S	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Lasianthus oblongus King & Gamble	√ (976)	√			T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Metadina trichotoma (Zoll. & Moritzi) Bakh.f.		√		√ (BN618)	T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Morinda citrifolia L.				√ (BN180)	T	Native	s
Rubiaceae	Mussaenda maingayi (Hook.f.) Hemsl. ex B.D.Jacks.	√ (KEP3896)				T	native	s
Rubiaceae	Nauclea orientalis (L.) L.				√ (BN515)	T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Hedyotis dichotoma Cav.				√ (FRI83069)	H	Native	s
Rubiaceae	Oxyceros fragrantissimus (Ridl.) K.M.Wong				√ (BN601)	T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Pertusadina eurhyncha (Miq.) Ridsdale	√ (KEP40637)	√	√	√ (BN223)	T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Porterandia anisophylla (Jack ex Roxb.) Ridl.	√ (KEP11723)				T	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Psychotria penangiana (BRAHMS)	√ (KEP2900)				S	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Psychotria viridiflora Reinw. ex Blume		√		√ (FRI84579)	S	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Psydrax nitidum (Craib) K.M.Wong				√ (FRI83022)	S	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Rubiaceae sp. 1				√ (BN298)	S	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Rubiaceae sp. 2				√ (BN410)	S	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Tarenna rudis Ridl.		√		√ (FRI84591)	S	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Timonius wallichianus (Korth.) Valeton	√ (FRI32201)	√	√	√ (FRI84563)	S	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Uncaria tomentosa (Willd. ex Schult.) DC.			√	√ (BN473)	C	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Urophyllum glabrum Jack ex Wall.		√		√ (FRI83074)	S	Native	p
Rubiaceae	Urophyllum blumeanum (Wight) Hook.f.	√ (FMS84)				S	Native	p
Rutaceae	Glycosmis chlorosperma (Blume) Spreng.	√ (FRI16588)	√		√ (FRI84574)	T	Native	p
Rutaceae	Maclurodendron porteri (Hook. f.) T.G. Hartley	√ (KEP99520)	√	√	√ (BN165)	T	Native	p
Rutaceae	Melicope glabra (Blume) T.G. Hartley	√ (FMS2452)	√	√		T	Native	p
Rutaceae	Melicope latifolia (DC.) T.G. Hartley	√ (FMS11701)				T	Native	p
Rutaceae	Melicope macrocarpa (King) T.G. Hartley	√ (FMS2828)				T	Native	p
Rutaceae	Micromelum minutum Wight & Arn.				√ (BN116)	T	Native	p
Rutaceae	Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.				√ (BN360)	T	Native	p
Salicaceae	Casearia capitellata Blume	√ (CF259)				T	Native	p
Salicaceae	Casearia clarkei var. kunstleri (King) Ridl.	√ (CF827)	√			T	Native	p
Salicaceae	Flacourtia rukam Zoll. & Moritzi				√ (FRI84667)	T	Native	p
Salicaceae	Homalium grandiflorum Benth.	√ (CF608)	√			T	Native	p
Sapindaceae	Pometia pinnata J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.	√ (FMS4965)	√	√	√ (BN132)	T	Native	p
Sapindaceae	Arytera littoralis Blume	√ (CF85)			√ (FRI84654)	T	Native	p
Sapindaceae	Lepisanthes amoena (Hassk.) Leenh.	√ (CF884)				T	Native	p
Sapindaceae	Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.) Leenh.	√ (CF2826)	√		√ (BN476)	T	Native	p
Sapindaceae	Lepisanthes rubiginosa (Roxb.) Leenh.			√	√ (BN76)	T	Native	p
Sapindaceae	Lepisanthes tetraphylla Radlk.	√ (FMS10218)				T	Native	p
Sapindaceae	Mischocarpus pentapetalus (Roxb.) Radlk.	√ (KEP45818)				T	Native	p
Sapindaceae	Nephelium cuspidatum Blume		√		√ (BN478)	T	Native	p
Sapindaceae	Nephelium maingayi Hiern.	√ (TN77)			√ (BN595)	T	Native	p
Sapindaceae	Xerospermum laevigatum Radlk.				√ (BN305)	T	Native	p
Sapindaceae	Xerospermum intermedium Radlk.	√ (KEP1002)				T	Native	p
Sapindaceae	Xerospermum noronhianum Blume	√ (CF1002)	√	√		T	Native	p
Sapotaceae	Chrysophyllum lanceolatum A.DC.	√ (KEP5404)	√			T	Native	p
Sapotaceae	Madhuca korthalsii (Pierre ex Burck) H.J.Lam	√ (KEP8522)	√		√ (BN513)	T	Native	p
Sapotaceae	Madhuca malaccensis (C.B.Clarke) H.J.Lam		√		√ (BN650)	T	Native	p
Sapotaceae	Palaquium gutta (Hook.) Baill.	√ (KEP3897)	√	√	√ (BN480)	T	Native
Sapotaceae	Palaquium maingayi (C.B.Clarke) Engl.	√ (KEP11716)		√	√ (BN445)	T	Native	p
Sapotaceae	Palaquium obovatum (Griff.) Engl.	√ (FRI2035)	√	√	√ (BN9)	T	Native	p
Sapotaceae	Palaquium oxleyanum Pierre	√ (KEP4940)				T	Native	p
Sapotaceae	Payena lucida A.DC.	√ (KEP823)	√			T	Native	p
Sapotaceae	Pouteria maingayi	√ (FRI2034)				T	Native	p
Sapotaceae	Pouteria malaccensis (C.B.Clarke) Baehni	√ (KEP11724)	√		√ (BN651)	T	Native	p
Staphyleaceae	Dalrympelea sphaerocarpa (Hassk.) Nor-Ezzaw.	√ (CF64)				T	Native	p
Stemonuraceae	Gomphandra quadrifida (Blume) Sleumer	√ (CF2897)	√		√ (FRI83060)	T	Native	p
Stemonuraceae	Medusanthera gracilis (King) Sleumer				√ (FRI84564)	T	Native	p
Stemonuraceae	Stemonurus malaccensis (Mast.) Sleumer	√ (FRI52858)	√			T	Native	p
Stemonuraceae	Stemonurus umbellatus Becc.			√	√ (FRI83016)	T	Native	p
Styracaceae	Styrax benzoin Dryand.				√ (BN343)	T	Native	p
Symplocaceae	Symplocos adenophylla Wall. ex G. Don				√ (BN431)	T	Native	p
Thymelaeaceae	Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.	√ (FMS9537)	√	√	√ (BN245)	T	Native	p
Thymelaeaceae	Gonystylus confusus Airy Shaw				√ (BN597)	T	Native	p
Torricelliaceae	Aralidium pinnatifidum (Jungh. & de Vriese) Miq.	√ (KEP2496)				T	Native	p
Trigoniaceae	Trigoniastrum hypoleucum Miq.	√ (CF2480)				T	Native	p
Urticaceae	Poikilospermum suaveolens (Blume) Merr.			√	√ (BN623.1)	T	Native	p
Vitaceae	Tetrastigma rafflesiae Planch.	√ (FRI29249)				C	Native	p
Vitaceae	Ampelocissus cinnamomea (Wall. ex M.A.Lawson) Planch.	√ (FMS10223)			√ (BN600)	C	Native	p
Vitaceae	Nothocissus spicifera (Griff.) Latiff			√	√ (BN502)	C	Native	p
Vitaceae	Cayratia mollissima (Planch.) Gagnep.			√	√ (BN450)	C	Native	p
Vitaceae	Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr.			√	√ (FRI83031)	S	Native	s
Angiosperms (Monocots)
Araceae	Rhaphidophora sylvestris (Blume) Engl.				√ (FRI83063)	C	Native	p
Araceae	Syngonium podophyllum Schott			√	√ (FRI83026)	C	Naturalised	s
Araceae	Aglaonema nitidum (Jack) Kunth				√ (BN234)	H	Native	p
Araceae	Aglaonema simplex (Blume) Blume				√ (FRI84560)	H	Native	p
Araceae	Amydrium medium (Zoll. & Moritzi) Nicolson			√	√ (FRI83017)	C	Native	p
Araceae	Anadendrum marginatum Schott				√ (FRI83073)	C	Native	p
Araceae	Anadendrum microstachyum (de Vriese & Miq.) Backer & Alderw.				√ (FRI84593)	C	Native	p
Araceae	Epipremnum sp. 1				√ (BN240)	C	Native	p
Araceae	Schismatoglottis scortechinii Hook.f.				√ (BN455)	H	Native	p
Araceae	Scindapsus hederaceus Miq.				√ (FRI83066)	C	Native	p
Araceae	Scindapsus pictus Hassk.			√	√ (BN645)	C	Native	p
Arecaceae	Arenga obtusifolia Mart.				√ (BN362)	P	Native	p
Arecaceae	Arenga westerhoutii Griff.				√ (BN464)	P	Native	p
Arecaceae	Caryota mitis Lour.			√	√ (BN179)	P	Native	p
Arecaceae	Korthalsia rigida Blume			√	√ (BN474)	P	Native	p
Arecaceae	Oncosperma horridum (Griff.) Scheff.				√ (BN472)	P	Native	p
Asparagaceae	Dracaena reflexa Lam.				√ (BN421)	S	Native	p
Asparagaceae	Dracaena angustifolia (Medik.) Roxb.				√ (BN415)	S	Native	p
Asparagaceae	Peliosanthes teta Andrews				√ (BN143)	H	Native	p
Commelinaceae	Commelina attenuata K.D.Koenig ex Vahl	√ (FMS13838)				H	Native	p
Costaceae	Cheilocostus speciosus (J.Koenig) C.D.Specht				√ (BN190)	S	Native	s
Cyperaceae	Mapania cuspidata (Miq.) Uittien			√	√ (BN139)	H	Native	p
Cyperaceae	Mapania palustris (Hassk. ex Steud.) Fern.-Vill.				√ (BN50)	H	Native	p
Cyperaceae	Hypolytrum nemorum (Vahl) Spreng.				√ (FRI83025)	H	Native	p
Dioscoreaceae	Tacca integrifolia Ker Gawl.			√	√ (BN40)	H	Native	p
Musaceae	Musa acuminata Colla			√	√ (FRI83064)	H	Native	s
Orchidaceae	Dendrobium crumenatum Sw.				√ (BN174)	E	Native	s
Orchidaceae	Apostasia nuda R.Br.	√ (FMS36030)				H	Native	p
Oxalidaceae	Sarcotheca griffithii Hallier f.	√ (157)				T	Native	p
Smilacaceae	Smilax megacarpa A.DC.				√ (BN463)	C	Native	p
Smilacaceae	Smilax myosotiflora A.DC.				√ (BN291)	C	Native	p
Xanthorrhoeaceae	Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC.	√ (CF6)	√			H	Native	p
Zingiberaceae	Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm.				√ (BN142)	H	Native	p
Zingiberaceae	Alpinia sp. 1				√ (BN466)	H	Native	p
Zingiberaceae	Elettariopsis sp.1				√ (BN55)	H	Native	p
Zingiberaceae	Elettariopsis triloba (Gagnep.) Loes.				√ (FRI83034)	H	Native	p
Zingiberaceae	Globba pendula Roxb.	√ (KEP51743)				H	Native	p
Zingiberaceae	Globba aurantiaca Miq.	√ (FMS4973)	√			H	Native	p
Zingiberaceae	Globba variabilis Ridl.	√ (CF594)				H	Native	p
Ferns
Adiantaceae	Adiantum latifolium Lam.			√	√ (FRI83018)	H	Naturalised	s
Aspleniaceae	Asplenium nidus L.				√ (BN126)	E	Native	p
Blechnaceae	Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. f.) Bedd.			√	√ (BN357)	E	Native	p
Cyatheaceae	Cyathea latebrosa (Wall. ex Hook.) Copel.			√	√ (FRI83030)	H	Native	s
Cyatheaceae	Cyathea alternans Hook.			√	√ (BN477)	H	Native	p
Davalliaceae	Davallia denticulata (Burm. f.) Mett. ex Kuhn				√ (FRI84598)	E	Native	s
Gleicheniaceae	Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.) Underw.			√	√ (BN334)	H	Native	s
Lygodiaceae	Lygodium circinatum (Burm. f.) Sw.			√	√ (BN454)	C	Native	p
Lygodiaceae	Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br.				√ (FRI83032)	C	Native	s
Nephrolepidaceae	Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott				√ (BN196)	H	Native	s
Polypodiaceae	Drynaria sparsisora (Desv.) T. Moore				√ (BN184)	H&E	Native	s
Polypodiaceae	Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel.				√ (FRI84569)	E	Native	p
Polypodiaceae	Platycerium coronarium (Mull.) Desv.				√ (BN646)	E	Native	p
Polypodiaceae	Pyrrosia piloselloides (L.) M.G. Price	√ (FMS11184)		√		E	Native	s
Pteridaceae	Pteris vittata L.				√ (FRI83028)	H	Native	s
Pteridaceae	Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw.			√	√ (FRI83021)	H	Native	p
Tectariaceae	Pleocnemia irregularis (C. Presl) Holttum			√	√ (BN12)	H	Native	s
Tectariaceae	Tectaria fissa (Kunze) Holttum	√ (SFN40078)				H	Native	p
Tectariaceae	Tectaria oligophylla (Rosenst.) C. Chr.				√ (FRI83019)	H	Native	p
Tectariaceae	Tectaria semipinnata (Roxb.) C.V. Morton			√	√ (83056)	H	Native	p
Tectariaceae	Tectaria singaporiana (Wall. ex Hook. & Grev.) Ching			√	√ (BN399)	H	Native	p
Thelypteridaceae	Christella parasitica H.Lev.				√ (BN487)	H	Native	p
Thelypteridaceae	Pronephrium menisciicarpon (Blume) Holttum				√ (BN277)	H	Native	p
Thelypteridaceae	Pronephrium rubicundum (Alderw.) Holttum				√ (BN411)	H	Native	p
Woodsiaceae	Diplazium crenato-serratum T. Moore				√ (BN519)	H	Native	p
Lycophytes
Selaginellaceae	Selaginella wallichii (Hook. & Grev.) Spring				√ (BN372)	H	Native	p
Selaginellaceae	Selaginella willdenowii (Desv. ex Poir.) Baker			√	√	H	Native	p

The checklist records a total of 499 plant taxa collected from BNFR corresponding to 2 lycophytes, 25 ferns, 39 monocot and 433 dicots (Table 2).

Table 2.

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Number of native and naturalised taxa recorded in Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve for the different biological groups.

Biological groups	Native	Naturalised	Total
Lycophytes	2	0
Ferns	24	1	499
Angiosperms (Monocots)	38	1
Angiosperms (Dicots)	425	8

The most speciose families in BNFR are Rubiaceae (32 taxa), Moraceae (23 taxa), Leguminosae (22 taxa), Myrtaceae (21 taxa), Dipterocarpaceae (16 taxa) and Euphorbiaceae (16 taxa). The largest monocot family is Araceae (11 taxa) including Aglaonema (2 taxa), Amydrium (1 taxa), Anadendrum (2 taxa), Epipremnum (1 taxa), Rhaphidophora (1 taxa), Schismatoglottis (1 taxa), Scindapsus (2 taxa) and Syngonium (1 taxa). The largest genera collected in BNFR are Syzygium (19 taxa), followed by Ficus (13 taxa), Shorea (8 taxa), Artocarpus (8 taxa), Garcinia (7 taxa) and Sterculia (6 taxa).

Among the ferns, Tectariaceae is the largest family with 5 species, followed by the Polypodiaceae with 4 species. Tectaria is the most speciose genus with 4 species. Only two species of lycophytes are recorded from BNFR: Selaginella wallichii and Selaginella willdenowii. Selaginella wallichii was found under the forest canopy but S. willdenowii grows in disturbed areas of BNFR.

Adiantum latifolium under the fern family is one of the naturalised species found in BNFR. This species is native to tropical America and naturalised in BNFR on the forest floor and disturbed area. Only one species, Syngonium podophyllum from the monocot species become naturalised on BNFR.

Graph in (Fig. 4) shown during the second decade in between 1911 to 1920, number of species increase is 127, followed by 1921 to 1930 with 117 species because in 1928 Henderson had done his survey at BNFR. After two decades, there is no new species recorded in that area since there are no significant declining or increasing number of species until year 2000. The reduction of species collected at BNFR are caused by the decrease in number of research and researcher during that period. Most of the researchers expanded their study site to other forest in Malaysia.

Figure 4.

Graph shown the increase number of species by decade at Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve from 1901 to 2016.

Almost 100 years later, in 2006, forest department done their survey in BNFR and recorded another 51 species. After that, our completed survey in 2015 to 2016 that covered all the trees, shrubs and herbs in Bukit Nanas area shown the highest peak of new collection of the species. Our survey collected 159 new record species including Syzygium, Tabernaemontana, Sterculia, Smilax, Ficus, Garcinia, Artocarpus and others. We also have the additional Dipterocarpaceae family which is Shorea glauca and Shorea assamica. In the monocot categories, we make many collections on Araceae family like Scindapsus hederaceus, Schismatoglottis scortechinii, Aglaonema simplex, Aglaonema nitidum and also Zingiberaceae (Zingiber zerumbet). Our collections were higher than other collections because we did the inventory regularly (3 times per month) and involved the expert around us to identify the species. Many of the collections before are not fully identified and they only focus on certain groups of plants and preliminary survey.

Forest structure

It is quite a surprise to still find some enormous trees in BNFR that appear to be several hundred years old (Table 3). From its structure and species composition BNFR is lowland dipterocarp forest (Saw 2010) and it has retained the typical three tree layers including the upper layer of emergent trees, the main stratum about 24-36 m high; and the lower layer with smaller, shade-tolerant trees and immature trees of the upper two layers, and below the shrub and herb layers. According to JPSM (2007), BNFR never been logged and because of these, the big emergent trees still exist.

Table 3.

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Big trees with the diameter at breast height (DBH) more than 50 cm in BNFR during FRIM survey 2015-2016.

DBH (cm)	Family	Species	Local name
124	Moraceae	Ficus vasculosa	Ara
120	Apocynaceae	Dyera costulata	Jelutong
120	Dipterocarpaceae	Dryobalanops aromatica	Kapur
110	Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea bracteolata	Meranti pa’ang
110	Malvaceae	Neesia malayana	Bengang
108	Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea sumatrana	Balau sengkawang ayer
105	Sapotaceae	Palaquium obovatum	Nyatoh
100	Calophyllaceae	Mesua ferrea	Penaga lilin
100	Olacaceae	Ochanostachys amentacea	Petaling
96	Moraceae	Artocarpus rigidus	Terap
90	Apocynaceae	Alstonia angustiloba	Pulai
90	Leguminosae	Falcataria moluccana	Batai
84	Dipterocarpaceae	Anisoptera costata	Mersawa
80	Rosaceae	Prunus polystachya	Medang kelawar
74	Meliaceae	Azadirachta excelsa	Sentang
70	Combretaceae	Terminalia bellirica	Bahera
70	Dipterocarpaceae	Dipterocarpus baudii	Keruing bulu
69	Anacardiaceae	Gluta wallichii	Rengas
60	Lauraceae	Litsea castanea	Medang kunyit
60	Leguminosae	Callerya atropurpurea	Tulang daing
55	Moraceae	Ficus variegata	Ara
53	Euphorbiaceae	Endospermum diadenum	Seduduk-seduduk
50	Anacardiaceae	Gluta curtisii	Rengas
50	Anacardiaceae	Gluta malayana	Rengas
50	Meliaceae	Toona sureni	Surian
50	Sapotaceae	Pouteria malaccensis	Nyatoh

Tall trees of the emergent layer in BNFR include many Dipterocarpaceae (16 species), the dominant family in Malaysian lowland rain forest, as well as Dyera costula (Apocynaceae), Mesua ferrea (Calophyllaceae), Palaquium obovatum (Sapotaceae), Neesia malayana (Malvaceae), Gluta curtisii, G. malayana and G. wallichii (Anacardiaceae).

In the main stratum, there are a great diversity of typical lowland forest trees such as Sindora coriaceae (Leguminosae), Canarium littorale, Dacryodes costata, Santiria apiculata (Burseraceae), Calophyllum inophyllum, Garcinia spp. (Clusiaceae), Madhuca spp., Palaquium spp., Pouteria malaccensis (Sapotaceae), Endocomia canarioides, Horsfieldia spp., Knema spp. (Myristicaceae), Artocarpus spp. and Ficus spp. (Moraceae), Syzygium spp. (Myrtaceae) and many others.

The large palms, Oncospermum horridum and Arenga westerhoutii, are also the typical lowland forest. In the understory, treelets, such as Chassalia chartacea (Rubiaceae) and Pheanthus nutans (Annonaceae); herbs like Tacca integrifolia (Dioscoreaceae) and Araceae (Aglaonema simplex and Schismatoglottis scortechinii) and Zingiberaceae (Zingiber zerumbet and Elettariopsis triloba) are common.

Among the most abundance forest species recorded in BNFR (Table 4), three are ferns (Adiantum latifolium, Pronephrium menisciicarpon and Stenochlaena palustris). Two are native species of the forest floor, Aglaonema simplex and Thottea tricornis. Thottea tricornis is important because it is the food plant of the caterpillar of the yellow birdwing butterfly, one of the most spectacular in Malaysia. The shrub Chassalia chartacea grows along trails and under big trees.

Table 4.

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The most common forest species in the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve.

Family	Species
Adiantaceae	Adiantum latifolium
Annonaceae	Phaeanthus ophthalmicus
Araceae	Aglaonema simplex
Aristolochiaceae	Thottea tricornis
Blechnaceae	Stenochlaena palustris
Cornaceae	Alangium griffithii
Euphorbiaceae	Elateriospermum tapos
Ixonanthaceae	Ixonanthes icosandra
Rubiaceae	Chassalia chartacea
Rubiaceae	Aidia densiflora
Rutaceae	Maclurodendron porteri
Sapotaceae	Palaquium obovatum
Thelypteridaceae	Pronephrium menisciicarpon

Endemic species

Henderson (1928), who provided the first list of plants from BNFR recorded 15 species as endemic to Peninsular Malaysia compared with 35 species collected between 1901 and 2014 (Table 5).

Table 5.

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Species endemic to Peninsular Malaysia recorded by Henderson (1928) (as “Hend.”), BRAHMS KEP data (1901-2014) (as “BRAHMS”), JPSM (2006) (as “FD”) and by FRIM survey (2015/2016) (as “15/16”).

(Note, * = endemic to Selangor).

Family	Species	BRAHMS	Hend.	FD	15/16
Achariaceae	Ryparosa fasciculata	√			√
Achariaceae	Scaphocalyx spathacea	√	√		√
Anacardiaceae	Gluta curtisii			√	√
Annonaceae	Alphonsea maingayi	√	√
Annonaceae	Drepananthus pruniferus	√	√
Annonaceae	Enicosanthum fuscum	√
Annonaceae	Phaeanthus ophthalmicus	√	√
Annonaceae	Xylopia subdehiscens	√	√
Apocynaceae	Anodendron wrayi				√
Apocynaceae	Leuconotis griffithii	√	√
Aquifoliaceae	Ilex maingayi	√
Araceae	Schismatoglottis scortechinii				√
Clusiaceae	Garcinia dumosa	√
Dichapetalaceae	Dichapetalum griffithii				√
Ebenaceae	Diospyros argentea	√	√	√	√
Euphorbiaceae	Ptychopyxis costata var. oblanceolata	√
Fagaceae	Castanopsis nephelioides	√
Fagaceae	Castanopsis wallichii	√
Fagaceae	Lithocarpus curtisii	√	√
Lamiaceae	Vitex longisepala	√
Lecythidaceae	Barringtonia fusiformis				√
Leguminosae	Bauhinia audax	√	√
Leguminosae	Crudia curtisii	√
Leguminosae	Fordia albiflora	√
Leguminosae	Ormosia polita	√	√
Malvaceae	Kostermansia malayana			√	√
Melastomataceae	Oxyspora bullata	√		√	√
Moraceae	Artocarpus hispidus				√
Moraceae	Ficus aurata	√
Myrtaceae	Syzygium borneense	√	√
Myrtaceae	Syzygium inophyllum	√			√
Phyllanthaceae	Aporosa penangensis	√
Phyllanthaceae	Baccaurea hookeri	√
Piperaceae	Piper porphyrophyllum	√	√
Rhizophoraceae	Pellacalyx saccardianus	√			√
Rubiaceae	Ixora kingstonii	√
Rubiaceae	Lasianthus oblongus	√	√
Rubiaceae	Oxyceros fragrantissimus				√
Rubiaceae	Psychotria penangiana	√
Rubiaceae	Tarenna rudis*		√		√
Salicaceae	Casearia clarkei var. kunstleri	√	√
Sapotaceae	Palaquium maingayi	√		√	√
Sapotaceae	Palaquium oxleyanum	√
Zingiberaceae	Globba variabilis	√
	TOTAL	35	15	5	16

Most of this increase derives from the latter surveys including all groups of plants, notably ferns, and from the more intensive collecting over a longer period. Of particular importance, however, from Henderson’s list is Tarenna rudis (Rubiaceae), the only species endemic to Selangor (Henderson 1928). Surprisingly, after 87 years, this species still exist in BNFR and recollected again during our survey.

Recollecting these endemic species was one of the objectives of this study but in spite of regular intensive search just 16 endemic species were collected (Table 5). In term of species number it was increase compare to Henderson survey because only three species are recollected again and remaining are new record in survey. But in term of the endemic lost from Henderson survey, 12 species did not exist anymore in BNFR. This is of particular concern since endemics are species of conservation importance. Reasons for this are various. One obvious reason is that the area of BNFR is now a fraction of its original size. When the size decrease some species lost because of disruption to the development and effect of the open area that give unsuitable conditions to grow and pollinate for their survival and generation.

Example of the species not recollected are Alphonsea maingayi (Annonaceae), Drepananthus pruniferus (Annonaceae), Phaeanthus ophthalmicus (Annonaceae), Xylopia subdehiscens (Annonaceae), Leuconotis griffithii (Apocynaceae), Lithocarpus curtisii (Fagaceae), Bauhinia audax (Leguminosae), Ormosia polita (Leguminosae), Syzygium borneense (Myrtaceae), Piper porphyrophyllum (Piperaceae), Lasianthus oblongus (Rubiaceae) and Casearia clarkei var. kunstleri (Salicaceae).

When we compare our recent survey with Henderson (Henderson 1928) and other botanists that collected between 1901 to 2014 only six of the species that still exist on BNFR such as Scaphocalyx spathacea (Achariaceae), Diospyros argentea (Ebenaceae) and Tarenna rudis (Rubiaceae), Ryparosa fasciculata (Achariaceae), Syzygium inophyllum (Myrtaceae) and Palaquium maingayi (Sapotaceae).

Change over time

For more than a hundred years, BNFR has been an isolated forest island in a sea of urbanisation. Although it was never logged, its size has been reduced from 17.5 ha in 1928 to 9.37 ha today and its accessibility in the centre of a busy city means it is vulnerable to disturbance. It is therefore to be expected that over the years, sensitive species will loss as the climate in the city has become hotter and less humid and many of the birds, mammals and presumably also insects that were pollinators or fruit and seed dispersers died out. Species loss is particularly conspicuous among the endemic species. Of the 267 species listed by Henderson (Table 6), 15 species are endemic to Peninsular Malaysia but after 87 years only about 20% still remain including Tarenna rudis that have been recollected in the BNFR.

Table 6.

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List of the naturalised plants

Family	Species
Acanthaceae	Asystasia gangetica ssp. micrantha
Acanthaceae	Hemigraphis reptans
Acanthaceae	Lepidagathis sp. 1
Adiantaceae	Adiantum latifolium
Araceae	Syngonium podophyllum
Cleomaceae	Cleome rutidosperma
Compositae	Ageratum conyzoides
Compositae	Crassocephalum crepidioides
Cucurbitaceae	Melothria pendula
Leguminosae	Senna sulfurea
Leguminosae	Senna hirsuta
Onagraceae	Ludwigia hyssopifolia

The future

At the present time, the presence of tall emergent trees and a complete canopy structure provides stable cooler, humid conditions suitable for the growth and regeneration of shade tolerant shrubs and herbs. But with development, the central area has become smaller in proportion to the margin. Additionally, the edge effect with conditions of high light, high temperatures and low humidity will, on the one hand, encourage the invasion of secondary and naturalised species, while on the other hand preventing the growth and regeneration of primary rain forest species.

Native secondary forest tree species, Macaranga tanarius, Macaranga triloba, Macaranga gigantea and Mallotus paniculatus form thickets along the forest margin. The fern Lygodium microphyllum is most common on the forest margins. However, some naturalised exotic species are invasive or have the potential to become established within the forest because they are adapted to forest habitats, such as Syngonium podophyllum, Cleome rutidosperma and Melothria pendula. Asystasia gangentica ssp. micrantha is an invasive weed introduced in the 1970s but is now naturalised and widespread and ubiquitous (Kiew and Vollescen 1997).

Secondary species and weeds are light demanding so if forest structure is not disturbed nor fragmented, they are unable to penetrate into the forest and therefore cannot compete with primary forest species. Over time, secondary forest trees can form a stable canopy. The shade demanding forest species can invade and become established and eventually grow taller and overshadow the secondary forest trees. Gradually over time primary forest species will replace the secondary ones. However, this depends on a seed source and being an island in a sea of urbanisation, recruitment of primary forest species can only be obtain from the existing stocks.

Using IUCN categories and criteria, five species was categorized as nearly threatened such as Dipterocarpaceae family including Anisoptera costata, Shorea sumatrana and two other species, Magnolia montana and Memecylon campanulatum (Table 7). In BNFR, there is only one tree of Shorea sumatrana with the diameter of 108 cm. The area where it grows needs to be protected to conserve the tree and enable its saplings to become established to ensure this species is not lost from BNFR.

Table 7.

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List of the endangered species in BNFR based on Flora Peninsular Malaysia (Kiew et al. 2010, Kiew et al. 2011, Kiew et al. 2012, Kiew et al. 2013, Kiew et al. 2015, Parris et al. 2010, Parris et al. 2013) and Malaysia Plant Red List (Chua et al. 2010).

Family	Species	Conservation Status
Dipterocarpaceae	Anisoptera costata	NT
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea dasyphylla	VU
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea sumatrana	NT
Magnoliaceae	Magnolia montana	NT
Melastomataceae	Memecylon campanulatum	NT

Cultivated species

Another source of invasive plants is from the planting of both of the native and exotic ornamental species around the Forest Department Information Centre and along paths (Table 8). One example is the ornamental Dioscorea zanzibarica, a most invasive species that is recorded in the Bukit Nanas area. Another species found in the open and near the canopy area is Hemigraphis reptans, an invasive shade-tolerant species that should be removed to prevent its spread. These two species need to be monitored to prevent their spread and impact on the natural habitat. The other problem is the addition of several native tree species, such as Hopea odorata, H. helferi and Vatica pauciflora, planted around the Visitor Centre and along the trails. If they become established, they will merge into the forest area and, in future, it will not be possible to distinguish the original BNFR forest species from those brought in. Care needs to be taken to maintained the original forest and to prevent the invasion of both exotic species and native species brought in from elsewhere.

Table 8.

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List of the cultivated species planted in Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve.

Family	Species	Categories
Acanthaceae	Clinacanthus nutans	Native
Acanthaceae	Hemigraphis reptans	Naturalised
Acanthaceae	Justicia vulgaris	Naturalised
Acanthaceae	Strobilanthes crispus	Naturalised
Achariaceae	Pangium edule	Native
Amaryllidaceae	Crinum asiaticum	Native
Anacardiaceae	Mangifera indica	Native
Anacardiaceae	Mangifera quadrifida	Native
Annonaceae	Polyalthia bullata	Native
Annonaceae	Polyalthia longifolia var. pendula	Native
Araceae	Aglaonema nitidum × comutatum	Naturalised
Araceae	Alocasia sp. 1	Native
Araucariaceae	Agathis borneensis	Native
Arecaceae	Areca catechu	Native
Arecaceae	Johannesteijsmannia altifrons	Native
Arecaceae	Livistona rotundifolia	Naturalised
Arecaceae	Pinanga disticha	Native
Arecaceae	Pinanga sp. 1	Native
Arecaceae	Rhapis excelsa	Native
Asparagaceae	Dracaena fragrans	Naturalised
Bignoniaceae	Tabebuia rosea	Naturalised
Bromeliaceae	Ananas nanus	Naturalised
Cactaceae	Pereskia sacharosa	Naturalised
Cibotiaceae	Cibotium barometz	Native
Combretaceae	Terminalia subspathulata	Native
Cycadaceae	Cycas macrocarpa	Native
Dioscoreaceae	Dioscorea zanzibarica	Exotic
Dipterocarpaceae	Dipterocarpus chartaceus	Native
Dipterocarpaceae	Hopea helferi	Native
Dipterocarpaceae	Hopea odorata	Native
Dipterocarpaceae	Hopea pierrei	Native
Dipterocarpaceae	Neobalanocarpus heimii	Native
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea	Native
Dipterocarpaceae	Shorea singkawang	Native
Dipterocarpaceae	Vatica cuspidata	Native
Dipterocarpaceae	Vatica pauciflora	Native
Euphorbiaceae	Aleurites moluccana	Native
Euphorbiaceae	Hevea brasiliensis	Naturalised
Euphorbiaceae	Jatropha curcas	Native
Gentianaceae	Fagraea fragrans	Native
Gnetaceae	Gnetum gnemon	Native
Gramineae	Bambusa multiplex	Native
Gramineae	Bambusa ventricosa	Exotic
Gramineae	Bambusa vulgaris	Native
Gramineae	Gigantochloa scortechinii	Native
Gramineae	Isachne albens	Native
Gramineae	Schizostachyum brachycladum	Native
Gramineae	Schizostachyum jaculans	Native
Guttiferae	Garcinia atroviridis	Native
Guttiferae	Garcinia mangostana	Native
Hamamelidaceae	Maingaya malayana	Native
Heliconiaceae	Heliconia psittacorum	Naturalised
Labiatae	Clerodendrum paniculatum	Native
Labiatae	Orthosiphon stamineus	Naturalised
Labiatae	Plectranthus monostachyus	Native
Lauraceae	Cinnamomum iners	Native
Leguminosae	Bauhinia kockiana	Naturalised
Leguminosae	Delonix regia	Naturalised
Leguminosae	Koompassia excelsa	Native
Leguminosae	Koompassia malaccensis	Native
Leguminosae	Peltophorum pterocarpum	Native
Leguminosae	Tamarindus indica	Native
Lythraceae	Lagerstroemia speciosa	Naturalised
Malvaceae	Durio zibethinus	Native
Malvaceae	Sterculia foetida	Native
Marantaceae	Donax canniformis	Native
Marantaceae	Phrynium pubinerve	Native
Marattiaceae	Angiopteris evecta	Native
Meliaceae	Azadirachta indica	Naturalised
Meliaceae	Lansium domesticum	Native
Meliaceae	Swietenia macrophylla	Naturalised
Menispermaceae	Tinospora crispa	Native
Myristicaceae	Myristica fragrans	Native
Myrtaceae	Syzygium aromaticum	Native
Myrtaceae	Syzygium campanulatum	Native
Myrtaceae	Tristaniopsis whiteana	Native
Orchidaceae	Cymbidium finlaysonianum	Native
Pandanaceae	Pandanus amaryllifolius	Native
Pandanaceae	Pandanus soboliferus	Native
Pandanaceae	Pandanus utilis	Native
Phyllanthaceae	Phyllanthus emblica	Native
Podocarpaceae	Podocarpus polystachyus	Native
Podocarpaceae	Podocarpus rumphii	Native
Pteleocarpaceae	Pteleocarpa lamponga	Native
Rubiaceae	Gardenia tubifera	Native
Rubiaceae	Ixora javanica	Native
Rutaceae	Citrus aurantifolia	Native
Rutaceae	Murraya paniculata	Native
Sapindaceae	Lepisanthes alata	Native
Sapindaceae	Nephelium lappaceum var. lappaceum	Native
Sapotaceae	Mimusops elengi	Native
Simaroubaceae	Eurycoma longifolia	Native
Stemonaceae	Stemona curtisii	Native
Zingiberaceae	Curcuma longa	Native
Zingiberaceae	Etlingera elatior	Native
Zingiberaceae	Kaempferia pulchra	Native

Conclusion

Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve is the only forest in the city that gives a green view surrounding. It must be maintained to provide good conditions for the development of the trees and become a reference centre for learning in the future. Our study provides the baseline data for the existing flora 88 years after it was inventoried by Henderson in 1928 and also records the existence of new and introduced species into this area that become invasive and naturalised. Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve is still categorised as a good forest with good forest structure and diversity because there are still many species, especially large trees that form the emergent layer and a complete tree canopy that provide cool, humid, shaded conditions for the shrubs and herbs below. In this area, the management department of forestry also grows some of the forest species and exotic plants to close the open area caused by the constructions. However, the operation and management of these introduce species into the area must be controlled to prevent taxonomic confusion in the future. In addition, the area is also increasingly disturbed by the construction of a pedestrian. Therefore, the management department of forestry must have the good plan structure for future conservation.

Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve had the privilege to serve as biodiversity centre, research, education, recreation, tourism, heritage and green lung area with monitoring and rigorous forest management. With an area of 9.37 ha, BNFR provides a good habitat for a diversity of plants and mammals.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Kuala Lumpur Federal Territory State Forestry and Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (JPSM) for permission to carry out the inventory in the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve. We are greatly indebted to Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) and Kuala Lumpur City Hall (DBKL) for their finanical support under the Memorandum of Understanding between DBKL and FRIM (2014-2017) and an Agreement between DBKL and FRIM (2015-2017) via vote number 51310708002. We are grateful to the Flora of Peninsular Malaysia team in the Forest Biodiversity Division, in particular Mohd. Hairul Mohd Amin, Angan Atan and Noor Neknazrul Husain for field assistance and contribution in this inventory.

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Supplementary material

Endnotes